第五章 結論與建議
5.2 建議
根據本研究的發現及所歸納的結論，以下針對教學及未來研究方面提出幾點建議：
一、對教學的建議
一個支持、鼓勵創造力的環境對創造力發展是有利的。但是，不能是完全良好的支 持環境，而是在過程中要有設計一些不同程度的任務挑戰(挫折、障礙)，以鼓舞不同程 度的個體玩興，專注於活動任務中且自得其樂，此時即是進入沉浸狀態下，個體會進而 發揮創意、表現傑出，且不斷加強技能，去維繫其樂趣的需求，朝向複雜的境界邁進(自 我成長)。諸如本研究所使用的問題解決遊戲情境，個體專注於電腦遊戲的目標追尋以
及多層次挑戰，即是透過電腦遊戲去培養及訓練學童的問題解決能力(創造力)。
二、對未來研究的建議
(一)、 從本研究的分析結果顯示，創造力是受到玩興透過沉浸狀態的影響。但是，迴 歸分析時整體的預測或解釋力不高，推論其原因，可能是本研究所使用遊戲情 境以及測驗創造力的量表，是屬於自然科技的問題解決情境，在創造力的表現 除了玩興之外，也應考慮到個體的領域知識，這可做為進一步深入的探討。
(二)、 本研究是將玩興視為人格特徵，個人是否達到沉浸狀態可視為展露玩興的一種 指標，也就是將沉浸視為個體玩興的變動(狀態)。未來研究可針對將玩興視為 隨情境變動的狀態，去探討個體經歷遊戲情境前後玩興的變化，以及沉浸狀態 是受到經歷遊戲情境前的玩興影響？還是受到經歷遊戲情境後的玩興影響？
這是一個可探索的議題。
(三)、 本研究所提出的因果模式圖，經過資料統計分析後，雖然迴歸效果及路徑分析 所繪製的路徑圖之「路徑係數」皆達顯著水準，具有統計上的意義，可以得到 驗證。但是解釋變異量及標準化迴歸係數都很低，而且殘差係數過高，推論其 中原因，可能是本研究所考驗的連續變項的顯性變項(玩興、沉浸經驗以及創 造力)間，可能存在潛在變項，必須納入因果模式才趨完整，而在分析方法上 由於複迴歸分析無法解決潛在變項的問題，需使用線性結構方程模式(LISREL) 來解決此方面的問題，在此提供未來研究之參考。
(四)、 本研究從個體玩家的沉浸經驗，去探討個體差異(玩興)在遊戲中的沉浸經驗以 及創造力表現，從遊戲的心理來看玩家的沉浸經驗即是反應玩家的遊戲經驗，
也就是說，我們可以進一步依個體與遊戲(人機互動)互動經驗去探討玩家的遊 戲動機(類型)與沉浸狀態(憂慮、沉浸、無聊)的關係。諸如Lazzaro (2004)所區 分的四類型玩家動機，有內在經驗關鍵(Internal experience key)、艱難獲得的 樂趣(Hard fun)－挑戰和策略關鍵、容易獲得的樂趣(Easy fun)－沉浸關鍵以及 其他玩家(Other player)－社會經驗關鍵。其中深沉浸是否為Hard fun型；淺沉 浸是否為Easy fun型，這是一個蠻有趣的探究。
(五)、 本研究所使用的單機電腦遊戲(機械反斗城)情境是屬於人機互動；未來可再探
討屬於人際互動的線上電腦遊戲情境。
(六)、 分析個體經歷遊戲情境的沉浸過程分佈以及統計問題解決結果，發現沉浸經驗 分佈偏向憂慮狀態且沒解決問題(沒過關)者比例較高，由此顯示，本研究所使 用的「機械反斗城」遊戲問題解決情境，對此次研究樣本(國小四年級學童)而 言是難度稍高，雖然適度增加環境的挑戰度可以有效激發學童的創造力，但難 度過高也不宜，因此建議未來研究可提高樣本的年齡(國小五、六年級)。
參考文獻
中文部份
江麗莉等（譯）（1997）。Joe L. Frost著。兒童遊戲與遊戲環境（Play and Playscapes）。
台北：五南。
余嬪、吳靜吉（2003）。業精於勤、荒於嬉？談成人的玩興與組織玩興氣氛。創造力實 踐歷程研討會。
余嬪、吳靜吉、楊潔欣、程蕙瑤、蔡淑敏（2004）。玩興與創造力、工作表現之關係。
第二屆「創新與創造力」研討會。
林珊如、林建妤（2004）。創意自我效能與預期評量對內在動機、創造力之影響的實驗 研究。國立交通大學教育研究所碩士論文。
吳靜吉、陳嘉成、林偉文（1988）。創造力量表簡介。「技術創造力」研討活動(二)：
研究方法探討。高雄：國立中山大學。
吳靜吉、陳甫彥、郭俊賢、林偉文、劉士豪、陳玉樺（1998）。新編創造思考測驗研究。
台北：教育部。
吳靜吉（2002）。創造力的研究取向之回顧與展望。中央大學：創造思考教學策略與實 務研討會。
洪蘭（譯）（1999）。Robert J. Sternberg & Todd I. Lubart著。不同凡想（Defying the Crowd）。臺北市：遠流。
姜文閔（譯）（1992）。John Dewey著。我們如何思維（How we think）。臺北市：五 南。
徐子超（譯）（2003）。Michael Schrage著。認真玩創新：進入創新與新經濟的美麗新 世界（Serious play: how the world’s best companies simulate to innovate）。台北：五 南。
徐鋒志（譯）（2002）。Robert I. Sutton著。11又1/2逆向管理－看起來怪，但非常管用
（Weird Ideas that Work）。臺北市：大塊文化。
吳靜吉、曾敬梅（2002）。研究生玩興、幽默、創意態度、所知覺系所創造氛圍與創造 力之關係。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。
吳靜吉、曾敬梅（2003）。玩興、幽默、創意態度、對研究所創造氛圍知覺與創新行為 的關係。創造力實踐歷程研討會。
黃瓊慧（2000）。從沉浸(flow)理論探討台灣大專學生網路使用之行為。國立交通大學 傳播研究所碩士論文。
張定綺（譯）（1996）。Csikszentmihalyi著。快樂，從心開始（Flow-the psychology of optimal experience）。台北：天下文化出版社發行。
張春興（1996）。教育心理學－ 三化取向的理論與實踐。台北：東華。
葉玉珠、鄭芳怡（2004）。國小學童解釋形態、領域知識、創意生活經驗與科技創造力 之關係。國立中山大學碩士論文。
楊斐羽、梁朝雲（2004）。將傳統遊戲的玩性因素導入電子遊戲之設計：一個遊戲心理 學的基礎研究。教學科技與媒體，69，20-38。
劉秀娟（1994）。幼兒玩性與社會性遊戲之研究。文化大學兒童福利學系碩士論文。
英文部份
Amabile, T. M., (1983). The Social Psychology of Creativity. Springer, New York.
Aguilar, T. E. (1985). Social and environmental barriers to playfulness. In J. L. Frost, & S.
Sunderlin,(Eds.), When Children Play. Weaton, MD: Association for Childhoon Education International. pp. 73-76.
Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (1985). Computer-based instruction: Methods and development.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Amabile, T. M. (1995). KEYS: Assessing the climate for creativity. Instrument published by the Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC.
Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in the context. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Amabile, T. M. (1997), "Motivating Creativity in Organizations: On Doing What You Love and Loving What You Do", California Management Review, 40 (Fall): 39-58.
Atkinson, M., & Kydd, C. (1997). Individual characteristics associated with World Wide Web use: An empirical study of playfulness and motivation. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems, 28(2), 53-62.
Adams, E. (1998). A Symmetry Lesson. Retrieved August 8, 2003, from
http://www.gamasutra.com/features/game_design/19981016/symmetry.htm Aarseth, E. (2003). Playing Research: Methodological approaches to game analysis.
Proceedings of Melbourne DAC 2003.
Bruner, J., Jolly, A. & Sylva, K (1976). Play - Its Role in Development and Evolution. New York: Basic Books, Inc.
Barnett, L. A., & Kleiber, D. (1982). Concomitants of playfulness in early childhood:
Cognitive abilities and gender. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 141, 115-127.
Barnett, L. A. (1990). Playfulness: Definition, Design, and Measurement. Play and Culture, Vol. 3, pp. 319-336.
Barnett, L. A. (1991). The Playful Child: Measurement of a Disposition to Play. Play and Culture, Vol. 4, pp. 51-74.
Bundy, A. (1997). Play and playfulness: what to look for. In L Parham, L Fazio (eds.) Play in
occupational therapy for children. St. Louis: Baltimore, 52-66.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond Boredom and Anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1985). Emergent Motivation and the Evolution of the Self. In D. A.
Kleiber & M. Maehr (Eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement (Vol. 4, pp.
93-119). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). Society, culture, and person: A system view of creativity. The Nature of Creativity.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, I. S. (1988). Optimal experience: psychological studies of flow in consciousness. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). Society, culture, and person: a systems view of creativity. In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.), The Nature of Creativity: Contemporary Psychological
Perspectives (pp. 325-339), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York:
Harper & Row.
Crawford, C. (1990). Lessons from Computer Game Design. In B. Laurel (Ed.), The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design, (pp. 103-11). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
Clarke, S.G., Haworth, J.T. (1994). Flow experience in daily lives of sixth-form college students. British Journal of Psychology, 85, 511–523.
Clarke, S. G., & Haworth, J. T. (1994). Flow Experience in the Daily Lives of 6th-Form College-Students. British Journal of Psychology, 85, 511-523.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). The creative personality. Psychology Today, 29(4): 36.
Crawford, C. (1997). The Art of Computer Game Design. Washington State University Vancouver. Retrieved November 16, 2003, from
http://www.mindsim.com/MindSim/Corporate/artCGD.pdf
Chen, H., Wigand, R., Nilan, M. S. (1999). Optimal experience of web activities. Computers in Human Behavior, 15 (5), 585–608.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). Implications of a systems perspective for the study of creativity.
In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 313–328). Cambridge, England:
Cambridge Univ. Press.
Chen, H. (2000). Exploring web users’ on-line optimal flow experiences. Dissertation, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, Unpublished.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Wolfe, R. (2000). New conceptions and research approaches to creativity: Implications of a systems perspective for creativity in education. In K.A.
Heller (Ed.), International handbook of giftedness and talent (pp. 81-93). Oxford, UK:
Elsevier Science.
Costikyan, G. (2002). I Have No Words & I Must Design. In Mäyrä, F. Conference Proceedings of Computer Games and Digital Cultures, pp. 9-33, Tampere University
Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). Flow: The Classic Work on how to Achieve Happiness. London:
Rider.
Casas, A. K. & Rogers, C. S. (2003). Childhood Playfulness as a Predictor of Adult
Playfulness and Creativity: A Longitudinal Study. Paper presented at the Association for the Study of Play, Atlanta, GA.
Dewey, J. (1946). John Dewey Society, New York : Harper.
Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum Press.
Dempsey, J. V., Rasmussen, K., & Lucassen, B. (1994). Instructional gaming: Implications for instructional technology. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Nashville. Paper presented at the Association for the Study of Play, Baltimore, MD.
Duvall, H. (2001). It’s all in your mind: Visual psychology and perception in game design.
Gamasutra. Retrieved August 22, 2002, from
http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20010309/duvall_pfv.htm.
Ellis, M. J. (1973). Why People Play. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Ellington, H., Adinall, E., & Percival, F. (1982). A Handbook of Game Design. London, UK:
Kogan.
Ellis, G. D., Voelkl, J. E., & Morris, C. (1994). Measurement and analysis issues with explanation of variance in daily experiences using the flow model. Journal of Leisure Research, 26 (4), 337–356.
Ermi, L. & Mäyrä, F. (2005). Fundamental Components of the Gameplay Experience:
Analysing Immersion. Presented at the International DiGRA Conference, June 16th - 20th, 2005, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
(http://www.gamesconference.org/digra2005/overview.php)
Frasca, Gonzalo (2000). Ludology Meets Narratology: Similitude and differences between (video) games and narrative. Retrieved JAN 18, 2003, from
http://www.jacaranda.org/frasca/ludology.htm.
Finneran, C. M., & Zhang, P. (2003). A Person-Artifact-Task (PAT) Model of Flow Antecedents in Computer-Mediated Environments. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, Special Issue on HCI and MIS, 59(4), 397-402.
Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist, 5: 444–454.
Gagne, E. D. (1985). The Cognitive Psychology of School Learning. Little Brown and Company. Boston, MA.
Graham, B. C. (1987). The effects of teachers’ playfulness and creativity on teacher-child interactions. Masters thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Glynn, M. A., & Webster, J. (1992). The adult playfulness scale: an initial assessment.
Psychological Reports, 71, 83-103.
Glynn, M. A., & Webster, J. (1993). Refining the nomological net of the adult playfulness scale: Personality, motivational and attitudinal correlates for highly intelligent adults.
Psychological Reports, 72, 1023-1026.
Ghani, J. A., & Deshpande, S. P. (1994). Task characteristics and the experience of optimal flow in human-computer interaction. The Journal of Psychology, 128(4), 381.
Ghani, J. A. (1995). Flow in Human-Computer Interactions: Test of a model. In J. M. Carey (Ed.), Human Factors in Information Systems: Emerging Theoretical Bases (pp.
291-311). Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Garris, R., Ahlers, R. & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, Motivation, and Learning: A Research and Practice Model. Simulation & Gaming. 33, 441-467.
Hoffman, D. L., & Novak, T. P. (1996). Marketing in hypermedia computer-mediated environments: conceptual foundations. Journal of Marketing, 60, 50-68.
Hopson, J. (2002). The Psychology of Choice. Retrieved June 21, 2003 from http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20020204/hopson_pfv.htm
Huang, M. H. (2003). Designing Website Attributes To Induce Experiential Encounters.
Computers in Human Behavior, (19)4, pp 425-442.
Jones, M.G. (1998). Creating engagement in computer-based learning environments.
Instructional Technology Forum: ITForum Listserv. Retrieved Dec 7, 1998, from the http://itech1.coe.uga.edu/itforum/paper30/paper30.html
Järvinen, Aki. (2002). Gran Stylissimo: The Audiovisual Elements and Styles in Computer and Video Games. In: Mäyrä, Frans (Ed.). Computer Games and Digital Cultures.
Tampere, 6 – 8 June, Tampere University Press.
John, Y. & Ding, Y. (2002). HCI and Game Design: From a Practitioner’s Point of View.
Retrieved Aug. 17, 2005, from
http://www.ye-brothers.com/documents/HCIGAMEDESIGN.pdf
Kogan, N. (1983). Stylistic variation in childhood and adolescence: Creativity, metaphor, and cognitive styles. In J. H. Flavell & E. M. Markman (Ed.), P. H. Mussen (Series Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 3, Cognitive Development (pp. 630-706). New York: Wiley.
Keller, S. (1992). Children and the Nintendo. Technical Report.
Karat, J., Karat C. and Ukelson, J. (2000). Affordances, Motivation, and the Design of User Interfaces. Communications of the ACM, 43(8), 49–51.
Lieberman, J. N. (1975). Playfulness, cognitive style, and leisure or? Do we need to educate for leisure? Society and Leisure, 3: 83-87.
Lieberman, J. N. (1977). Playfulness: Its Relationship to Imagination and Creativity.
Academic Press, New York, NY.
Levy, J. (1983). Play Behavior, Robert E. Krieger. Malabar, FL.
Lepper, M. R., & Hodell, M. (1989). Intrinsic motivation in the classroom. In C. Ames & R.
Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education (Vol. 3, PP 73-105). San Diego:
Academic Press.
Lombard, M., Reich, R., Grabe, M. E., Bracken, C. and Ditton, T. (2000). Presence and television: The role of screen size. Human Communication Research, 26(1), 75-98.
Lazzaro, N. (2004). Why we play games: four keys to more emotion in player experiences.
Game Developers Conference 2004. Retrieved Nov 9, 2004, from http://xeodesign.com/xeodesign_whyweplaygames.pdf.
Lindley C. A. (2005). Story and Narrative Structures in Computer Games. In: Developing Interactive Narrative Content: sagas/sagasnet reader. Bushoff, B. ed. Munich: High Text.
MacKinnon, D. (1970). Creativity: A multi-faceted phenomenon. In J. D. Roslansky (Ed.), Creativity: A discussion at the Nobel conference (pp. 17–32). Amsterdam:
North-Holland.
Moore, A. (1985). Childrearing practices associated with playfulness and type a behavior in children. Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In Snow, R. E. & Farr, M. J. (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction (Vol. 3). Cognitive and affective process analyses. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Massimini, F., & Carli, M. (1988). The systematic assessment of flow in daily experience. In M. Csikszentmihalyi & I. S. Csikszentmihalyi (Eds.), Optimal experience: psychological studies of flow in consciousness (pp. 266-287). Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Martocchio, J. J., & Webster, J. (1992). Effects of feedback and cognitive playfulness on performance in microcomputer software training. Personnel Psychology, 45, 553-578.
Merrill, Paul, F., Hammons, K., Vincent, B. R., Reynolds, P. L., Christensen, L., & Tolman, M.N. (1996). Computers in education, 3rd ed (pp. 65-86). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Moneta, G. B., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). The effect of perceived challenges and skills on the quality of subjective experience. Journal of Personality, 64 (2), 275-310.
Mumford, M. D., Baughman, W. A., Threlfall, K. V., Supinski, E. P., & Costanza, D. P.
(1996). Process based measures of creative problem solving skills: I. Problem construction. Creativity Research Journal, 9, 62–76.
Murray J. H. (1997). Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in Cyberspace.
Baltimore & London: MIT Press.
Moon, J., & Kim, Y. (2001). Extending the TAM for a World-Wide-Web context.
Information and Management, 38 (4), 217–230.
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric Theory, (2nd edn) McGraw Hill: New York.
Nicolopoulou, A. (1993). Play, cognitive development, and the social world: Piaget,
Nicolopoulou, A. (1993). Play, cognitive development, and the social world: Piaget,