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第三章 美國法之正當防衛

第一節 緒論 – 美國刑法理論簡介

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防衛各州規範,進行歧異比較與說明其相關規定的規範與運用模式;最後再於第 五節就美國法上堡壘原則發展至不退讓法後,現今各州落實不退讓法產生之爭議,

就其關鍵案件:State of Florida v. George Zimmerman 介紹,分析與相關制度之反 思。

第一節 緒論 – 美國刑法理論簡介

正如前述所言,在進入美國刑法討論之前,勢必應當先行了解美國刑事法之 運作為何,亦即一個犯罪行為之發生,應在實體法上以如何之認定其是否有罪,

並說明其在程序上應為如何之審判209。又尤其本文欲討論者 – 正當防衛「傳統 上」作為一種積極抗辯(Affirmative Defense)在訴訟中究竟應由誰舉證,以及由 誰判斷是否存在等等,都將影響此種抗辯權之適用。

而在本節中對於美國刑法理論之簡介,本文將以模範刑法典之規範為依據進 行介紹。模範刑法典之規範本身雖然並無任何拘束力,然而在 1962 年模範刑法 典被當時的會議委員會推出後,模範刑法典與其相關註釋與解釋受到多數州法所 青睞,或以其為為本州刑法規範之藍本(如紐約州刑法),亦或參考其對於相關 規範之註釋與解釋,而使得模範刑法典實質上影響了美國刑法之整體發展,而有 其相當程度之價值性,遠高於一般的次要法源。

第一項 美國刑法有無罪之判斷

美國刑法作為普通法系與判例法的代表210,有認為其刑法要件之明文並未與 大陸法系有相同之詳細程度,本文認為此處應先導正視聽。事實上美國刑法亦有 關於行為要件、主觀要件與抗辯要件的分別判斷,其公式可以以此方式理解:犯 罪行為(Actus Reus)+主觀要件(Mens Rea)+未存在抗辯事由(Without Justification or Excuse) = 犯罪211。而雖然在聯邦刑法罪章之中並未分別就各部

209 除了本文參考之储槐植,美国刑法外,尚有其他中文文獻亦有將美國刑法體系簡介者,參見

刘士心,美国刑法中的犯罪论原理,人民出版社,2010 年 6 月 1 版。

210 英國亦為普通法系代表之一,合稱英美法系。

211 另有一種公式則是 AIRCD: Act + Intent + Result = Crime - Defenses. 但本文認為這並無法完整 展現美國法上判斷犯罪有無的所有要件,行為犯罪並不存在結果要素,而若干犯罪亦以過失犯為 規定,而不存在故意,故以本文所羅列之方式判斷。

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分要件進行定義(行為部分在其個別犯罪中自然有其要件),但實則在各州刑法 下仍有不同程度之規範,以下將概略性的簡介。

第一款 犯罪行為(Actus Reus)

Actus Reus 本身為拉丁語,其拉丁文含意是「罪惡的行為」。廣義上而言,

Actus Reus 包含犯罪行為、犯罪情節與結果,此為其拉丁文原始所包含的定義212。 在模範刑法典中將其分別解釋為「有意識的行為」與「行為與結果間之因果關係」, 而後各州法律(如紐約州法)亦有以模範刑法典為藍本而成之刑法條文。必須說 明的是,這裡的有意識亦包含了過失態樣,此將在後續主觀要件中進行詳盡說明。

而實際上在模範刑法典中並沒有使用 Actus Reus 這個名詞進行解釋,而是 在分別在第2.01 條與第 2.03 條中規定了犯罪行為與行為與結果間之因果關係。

第2.01 條規定犯罪行為包含三種態樣:有意識行為、不作為與持有狀態213, 並在條文中詳細規定不被認定為有意識行為之型態(痙孿或反射動作、無意識或 者睡眠中之身體動作、處於催眠狀態中的動作或者由催眠中的暗示所引起的動作、

非基於行為人的意思活動或意思決定而做出的有意識或習慣性的其他身體動作

214),以及不作為犯除了符合特別要件(特定犯罪以不作為犯為態樣足以構成犯 罪,或法律對於該未履行行為之人施加了作為義務215)外不構成犯罪。

第 2.03 條則進一步規定行為與結果間之因果關係,其在第 1 項明文了行為 是構成結果的原因情形,其中有名的”but for rule”,亦即沒有該行為不會發生該 結果之定義,以及行為與結果間之關係符合法定犯罪所額外附加之要件要求216

212 參見储槐植,美国刑法,北京大學出版社,1996 年 3 月 2 版,頁 53。

213 See Model Penal Code §2.01 Requirement of Voluntary Act; Omission as Basis of Liability;

Possession as an Act.

214 Model Penal Code §2.01(2)(a) a reflex or convulsion;

(b) a bodily movement during unconsciousness or sleep;

(c) conduct during hypnosis or resulting from hypnotic suggestion;

(d) a bodily movement that otherwise is not a product of the effort or determination of the actor, either conscious or habitual.

215 Model Penal Code §2.01(3)(a) the omission is expressly made sufficient by the law defining the offense; or (b) a duty to perform the omitted act is otherwise imposed by law.

216 Model Penal Code §2.01(1)(a) it is an antecedent but for which the result in question would not have occurred; and (b) the relationship between the conduct and result satisfies any additional causal requirements imposed by the Code or by the law defining the offense.

217 Model Penal Code §2.01(2) When purposely or knowingly causing a particular result is an element of an offense, the element is not established if the actual result is not within the purpose or the contemplation of the actor unless:

(a) the actual result differs from that designed or contemplated, as the case may be, only in the respect that a different person or different property is injured or affected or that the injury or harm designed or contemplated would have been more serious or more extensive than that caused; or

(b) the actual result involves the same kind of injury or harm as that designed or contemplated and is not too remote or accidental in its occurrence to have a [just] bearing on the actor's liability or on the gravity of his offense.

218 Model Penal Code §2.01(3) When recklessly or negligently causing a particular result is an element of an offense, the element is not established if the actual result is not within the risk of which the actor is aware or, in the case of negligence, of which he should be aware unless:

(a) the actual result differs from the probable result only in the respect that a different person or different property is injured or affected or that the probable injury or harm would have been more serious or more extensive than that caused; or

(b) the actual result involves the same kind of injury or harm as the probable result and is not too remote or accidental in its occurrence to have a [just] bearing on the actor's liability or on the gravity of his offense.

219 When causing a particular result is a material element of an offense for which absolute liability is imposed by law, the element is not established unless the actual result is a probable consequence of the actor's conduct.

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的產生,此三者差異在於確定法定原因的標準不同,而其目的皆為排除前者”but for” 公式下無法解決的介入因素以及共同原因態樣220。此部分亦得作為另一篇 論文詳細研究,本文在此不再過多涉入。事實上在前述的模範刑法典條文中可部 份解決第三因素的介入情形,然刑法案件千百種各有其不同,條文規範亦難以全 權完善,反而是個案判斷產生的判決先例可以作為不同案件的標準,此亦為英美 法系之施行方式。

第二款 犯罪心態(Mens Rea)

Mens Rea 為英文 ”guilty mind” 的拉丁語,即所謂的犯罪心態221。而此犯罪 心態內涵,學者給予的定義是行為人為Actus Reus 時應受社會譴責的心理狀態,

而給予了兩層涵義:(1)規範內容 – 應受道德規範與法律規範的譴責與否定;

(2)心理內容 – 具有知與意的心理要素,及認識行為性質以及行為與危害結果 間之關係,或有表明對行為和結果的意向222

而有學者認為既然犯罪心態包含規範內容之層次,則當行為人行使合法之抗 辯行為時,即無犯罪心態之存在,而可根本同時毋庸再另外獨立抗辯事由;同時 亦有學者認為犯罪心態僅是心理內容之認識,而認為正當防衛存在犯罪心態之結 論此二種截然相反之觀點223。就此一個很簡單論點是,倘若行為人主張其之行為 是正當防衛,則此時其心理內容表明的是理解且有知與意產生危害結果;而其對 於規範內容之理解是認為其自身行為符合規範,然而倘若被認定為非正當防衛時,

此時是所謂對規範的誤認,則自不影響犯罪心態的成立,而對於規範的誤認則另 外進行處裡224。理論上是這樣的形式,然而在若干州之正當防衛規範中,對於正

220 詳細可參見储槐植,同前註 212,頁 61-74。

221 對於 Mens Rea 的中文基礎介紹,可參見 Rollin M. Perkins 著,孙潇洁、刘仁文译,犯罪意图 的理论基础,收錄於刑法学精粹,法律出版社,2005 年 12 月 1 版,頁 35 以下(原文收錄於 Rollin M. Perkins, A Rationale of Mens Rea, 52 Harv. L. Rev. 905 (April 1939) );對於 Mens Rea 的詳細研 究,可參見李立峰,美国刑法犯意研究,中国政法大学出版社,2009 年 3 月 1 版,本書中將 Mens Rea 翻譯為犯意,並將相關內容一併介紹並分析,美國的 Mens Rea 有其體系自成一格,本文僅 將模範刑法典中作介紹

222 參見储槐植,同前註 212,頁 74。

223 參見储槐植,同前註 212,頁 74。

224 事實上,美國法上的犯罪心態的研究亦非前述幾句即能完整解釋,其涉及面向包含前述知與

意的範圍,不同程度的心理層面是否影響犯罪產生之程度等。而本文在此亦不過度深入,僅就本 文涉及議題稍微說明。

226 Model Penal Code §2.02 General Requirements of Culpability.

(1) Minimum Requirements of Culpability. Except as provided in Section 2.05, a person is not guilty of an offense unless he acted purposely, knowingly, recklessly or negligently, as the law may require, with respect to each material element of the offense.

(2) Kinds of Culpability Defined.

(a) Purposely.

A person acts purposely with respect to a material element of an offense when:

(i) if the element involves the nature of his conduct or a result thereof, it is his conscious object to engage in conduct of that nature or to cause such a result; and

(ii) if the element involves the attendant circumstances, he is aware of the existence of such circumstances or he believes or hopes that they exist.

(b) Knowingly.

A person acts knowingly with respect to a material element of an offense when:

(i) if the element involves the nature of his conduct or the attendant circumstances, he is aware that his conduct is of that nature or that such circumstances exist; and

(ii) if the element involves a result of his conduct, he is aware that it is practically certain that his conduct will cause such a result.

(c) Recklessly.

A person acts recklessly with respect to a material element of an offense when he consciously disregards a substantial and unjustifiable risk that the material element exists or will result from his conduct. The risk must be of such a nature and degree that, considering the nature and purpose of the actor's conduct and the circumstances known to him, its disregard involves a gross deviation from the standard of conduct that a law-abiding person would observe in the actor's situation.

(d) Negligently.

A person acts negligently with respect to a material element of an offense when he should be aware of a substantial and unjustifiable risk that the material element exists or will result from his conduct. The risk must be of such a nature and degree that the actor's failure to perceive it, considering the nature and purpose of his conduct and the circumstances known to him, involves a gross deviation from the standard of care that a reasonable person would observe in the actor's situation.

228 Model Penal Code §1.13. General Definitions

(10) "material element of an offense" means an element that does not relate exclusively to the statute of limitations, jurisdiction, venue or to any other matter similarly unconnected with (i) the harm or evil, incident to conduct, sought to be prevented by the law defining the offense, or (ii) the existence of a justification or excuse for such conduct.

229 參見储槐植,同前註 212,頁 88。

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由則構成了美國法上刑法的雙階層模式,此種雙階層模式並無直接透過刑法條文 明示,但在法官對陪審團的指示上可以見得,例如:法官對陪審團針對系爭案件

由則構成了美國法上刑法的雙階層模式,此種雙階層模式並無直接透過刑法條文 明示,但在法官對陪審團的指示上可以見得,例如:法官對陪審團針對系爭案件