• 沒有找到結果。

第柒章 淨土信仰的世間利益

第二節、 道德上的益處

William James 認為靈性經驗(spirituality)扼要來說有三準則:“[1]Immediate luminousness, in short, [2]philosophical reasonableness, and [3]moral helpfulness are the only available criteria.”333(簡言之,即時的啟發性、哲學的合理性,以及倫理的有益性是僅有的標準。)

以現代白話來表達,即能否即時讓人啟發開悟、能否符合公認的真理、能否有助於進德修業。

筆者雖認為淨土念佛往生法門有依靠他力來救贖之嫌,不見得有任何合理性(即不符合 philosophical reasonableness)。334但我們也許應肯定它能讓信者悟知娑婆皆苦(符合 immediate luminousness ), 所 提 倡 的 往 生 正 行 及 雜 行 亦 能 使 人 在 道 德 修 養 上 提 升 ( 符 合 moral

332 筆者只是主張以「智」(智慧的態度)來分辨淨土核心思想是否就是淨土中人所聲稱的“reality itself”(「真 實本身」,還是只是“constructed reality”(「(人為)建構的真實」)而已。可是 William James 似乎是直接去碰“reality itself”本身了,他認為不應以人類有限之觀點來決定是否有上帝。他覺得純以人類價值觀來衡量宗教成果的價 值,從而否定上帝存在,是不合邏輯的,因為如果上帝真的存在,則宗教自然有其價值,人為上帝所做的行 為也變得很合理了:“Abstractly, it would seem illogical to try to measure the worth of a religion's fruits in merely human terms of value. How can you measure their worth without considering whether the God really exists who is supposed to inspire them? If he really exists, then all the conduct instituted by men to meet his wants must necessarily be a reasonable fruit of his religion,- it would be unreasonable only in case he did not exist.” See William James, VRE, p.262, “Lectures 14 and 15 The Value of Saintliness”. 作者似乎以信徒崇拜神的行為確實存在於世間,來假設、

反推神應真實存在,以為神當然要存在信徒才可能有如斯崇拜行為,殊不知此兩者並無什麼必然因果關係,

作者此論點有點牽強。

333 William James, VRE, p.33, “Lecture 1 Religion and Neurology”.

334 連向來仰信基督教的 William James 也知道佛教是無神論的,並沒有一個佛建設什麼避難所來讓求救贖的眾 生來往生:“There are systems of thought which the world usually calls religious, and yet which do not positively assume a God. Buddhism is in this case. Popularly, of course, the Buddha himself stands in place of a God; but in strictness the Buddhistic system is atheistic.” See William James, VRE, p.43, “Lecture 2 Circumscription of the Topic”.

helpfulness),所以如此的原因,是因為歸信某一宗教者,當信仰強度達到極致時,由內心散 發出“saintliness”(「神聖/聖徒性格」)所致,此一性格擁有共通於一切宗教的特色,因此亦 適用於淨土宗,以下簡述 James 定義下的聖徒性格:

一、相信有一超然的理想力量存在,它可以是宗教上某一具體的神,或抽象的概念如道德理 想、公民或愛國烏托邦、神聖或正義的內在願景等:“A feeling of being in a wider life than that of this world's selfish little interests; and a conviction, not merely intellectual, but as it were sensible, of the existence of an Ideal Power. In Christian saintliness this power is always personified as God; but abstract moral ideals, civic or patriotic utopias, or inner visions of holiness or right may also be felt as the true lords and enlargers of our life….”335(處身於更 廣大的生命而非俗世私利的感覺,以及一種理想力量存在的信念——此信念不僅是智力 層面,更是理性的。在基督神聖性裡此力量常擬人化為上帝,但抽象的道德階模、公民 或愛國式烏托邦、聖潔或權利的內在願景,都可能被感覺為真正的主或生命的擴大力 量……)這在淨土信徒來說,就是相信有彌陀及極樂。

二、對此一與吾人生命連貫的理想力量感到親切,並願意受其支配(self-surrender):“A sense of the friendly continuity of the ideal power with our own life, and a willing self-surrender to its control.”336(理想力量在吾人生命的友好延續性之感覺,及願意捨己聽從於它的控 制。)這在淨土信徒來說,就是渴求往生淨土。

三、自我限制的邊界融解,引發出喜樂及自由感覺:“An immense elation and freedom, as the outlines of the confining selfhood melt down.”337(當限制的自我邊界消融時,所生的無比 的歡愉與自由)這在淨土信徒來說,就是脫離五濁惡世輪迴解脫自由。

四、愛與和諧一躍而成為情感的核心,趨向正面,遠離負面:“A shifting of the emotional centre towards loving and harmonious affections, towards 'yes, yes,' and away from 'no,' where the claims of the non-ego are concerned.”338(情感中心轉移到愛與和諧之情,遠離負面趨向 正面,這跟非我的訴求有關。)這在淨土信徒來說,就是消除煩惱的過程。

335 William James, VRE, p.220, “Lectures 11, 12, and 13 Saintliness”.

336 William James, VRE, p.221, “Lectures 11, 12, and 13 Saintliness”.

337 William James, VRE, p.221, “Lectures 11, 12, and 13 Saintliness”.

338 William James, VRE, p.221, “Lectures 11, 12, and 13 Saintliness”.

以上是形容信仰帶給人的改變是全面而正向的,他對此一大我感到親切,在心靈上產生喜 樂、和諧的情感,進一步地,有小我融入大我生命中的感覺,自我的概念也暫時消失。以上 特色可引出四種結果:

(一) 苦行:“Asceticism.- The self-surrender may become so passionate as to turn into self-immolation. It may then so overrule the ordinary inhibitions of the flesh that the saint finds positive pleasure in sacrifice and asceticism, measuring and expressing as they do the degree of his loyalty to the higher power.”339(苦行。——捨棄自我之舉可 能益發熱烈而轉成自我犧牲。這可能超越正常肉體的限制,使得聖徒在犧牲和苦 行中找到正面的快感,此一快感反映出他對高階力量的忠心程度。)這是從將個 人身心交付理想力量的熱切冀望轉化成自我犧牲奉獻而來,以表示自己對高級力 量的忠貞,並認為,所行越苦,越表示自己的虔誠。淨土宗有很多這類具體例子,

如每天精進不眠不休作幾萬聲佛號的功課。

(二) 靈性加強:“Strength of Soul.- The sense of enlargement of life may be so uplifting that personal motives and inhibitions, commonly omnipotent, become too insignificant for notice, and new reaches of patience and fortitude open out. Fears and anxieties go, and blissful equanimity takes their place.”340(靈魂強度。——生命擴大的感覺令人振奮,

使個人那通常都很強大的動機與限制,都變得微不足道了,耐性與毅力開展出新 的範圍。恐懼與憂慮去除,取而代之的是幸福的平靜。)此點內涵上似乎與第一 點部份重叠,因苦行當然代表了靈魂強度的提升。用作者的話,這是因為生命的 擴大與提升,使一向頑強的個人動機與限制都弱得不足道了;用白話一點說法,

即個人私欲或假面具,隨著個體生命的升華而一掃而空,人會變得更有耐性及毅 力,內心再也無憂無懼,變得平靜。正如念佛者確信能花開見佛生西,從而內心 無懼無憂。

(三) 純潔:“Purity.- The shifting of the emotional centre brings with it, first, increase of purity. The sensitiveness to spiritual discords is enhanced, and the cleansing of existence from brutal and sensual elements becomes imperative.”341(首先,情感中心的轉移帶

339 William James, VRE, p.221, “Lectures 11, 12, and 13 Saintliness”.

340 William James, VRE, p.221, “Lectures 11, 12, and 13 Saintliness”.

341 William James, VRE, pp.221-222, “Lectures 11, 12, and 13 Saintliness”.

來純潔度的提升。對精神上的不協調更為靈敏,清除存在個體的殘忍與情慾元素 顯得必要。)人性變得更純潔,因此視消除殘暴及色慾為人生要務,因為此時的 他對靈性的不協調會更敏感──意謂如他外在某些身口意行為並不符合其內在靈 性的期待時,會選擇約束自己,這應該很多信徒都會有的體驗,因此有些淨土教 徒會以各式的戒律來規範自己的身口意行為,以免所行與所信的不一致。

(四) 仁愛:“Charity.- The shifting of the emotional centre brings, secondly, increase of charity, tenderness for fellow-creatures. The ordinary motives to antipathy, which usually set such close bounds to tenderness among human beings, are inhibited. The saint loves his enemies, and treats loathsome beggars as his brothers. ”342(仁愛。——

第二,情感中心的轉移帶來對同胞的仁愛與體貼度的提升。帶來與人類間體貼情 不兩立的厭惡感,其一般動力被壓抑。聖者愛他的敵人,待人見人厭的乞丐如兄 弟。)對同胞充滿仁愛與和善,人與人之間不再互相憎惡。這在淨土宗可體現在 部份後出的「大經」對惡人亦許其臨終唸佛後亦得以最下品往生淨土,雖然此舉 亦可能只是為了吸引信眾。

我們可援引 William James 對宗教生活的觀點來論說:“[The life of religion] consists of the belief that there is an unseen order, and that our supreme good lies in harmoniously adjusting ourselves thereto.”343(宗教生活包含相信某一不可見秩序,以及相信我們的至善在於和諧地 與之相調節。)他表示宗教生活的根基就是相信有一不可眼見的無形秩序,我們的至善和諧 地自我調整並嘗試與之相應,這跟淨土中人也相信他方有一超然的世界──淨土(故可說是 an unseen order),死心塌地的透過不同方法(如唸佛、誦經、禮佛)以求自身善性能與彌陀 或淨土相應,如此其人格、道德等變得正面,可說是不無道德上的益處。

342 William James, VRE, p.222, “Lectures 11, 12, and 13 Saintliness”.

343 William James, VRE, p.59, “Lecture 3 The Reality of the Unseen”.