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兒童美術發展與特殊兒童美術教育

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想像力豐富、好奇心高、觀察力敏銳、或善於批判與創造 思考等異於一般學生的特質(林幸台,民 84;George, 1995),而使得其美術能力在美術發展階段的表現上,常 亦會有明顯超前的情形。鑒於美術發展階段理念在規劃及 實施兒童美術教育或輔導之價值,本文將詳細探討應用最 普遍的羅文費美術發展階段論,並引述兒童美術的相關研 究(Kellogg, 1970;Lindstrum, 1964;Lansing, 1969; Salome & Moore, 1979a;Salome & Moore, 1979b),最 後探討特殊兒童的美術教育活動,俾供參考。

貳、兒童美術發展階段論

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其身心發展的狀況,如手眼協調、大小肌肉運作的能力、 平衡感、自我控制(self control)和現實感(reality sense)等 要素。此一塗鴉期(2-4歲)依繪畫表現特徵的不同又 細分為三個階段,依序為「隨意塗鴉」、「控制塗鴉」和「命 名塗鴉」,分述其內容如后(陸雅青,民 82,86;侯禎塘, 民 86;Anderson,1994;Lowenfeld & Brittain,1987):

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要的經驗,能從控制的感覺中得到自信,也會把情緒表現 在自發的塗鴉遊戲上。 控制塗鴉的進展上,幼兒會變化其塗鴉的動作,使畫 面均衡地佈滿各種不同種類的線條,逐漸從大圓圈亂線的 複雜動作轉化到單一圓圈及小圓圈的細動作。 3.命名塗鴉(Named scribbling):3 歲到 3 歲半左右 大約 3 歲到 3 歲半的幼兒,開始由運動性的思考 (thinking kinesthetically)轉 移 到 心 象 性 的 思 考 (thinking imaginatively)。幼兒對塗鴉的線或形加以命名,意味著畫 中的線痕與外在的環境事物產生有意義的關聯。

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情緒與文化不利的問題(Lowenfeld and Brittain, 1987 ; Manning, 1987 ; Oster & Gould, 1987, Malchiodi, 1990)

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到所有的樹皆是綠色,則表示已建了樹的固定色彩概念。 兒童的發展到了能夠正確的選用和使用物體的固定色彩, 顯示兒童已建立了組織周遭環境事物的邏輯思考方式,並 且以具體的物體進行此一類推的思考。

5.繪畫與閱讀的關聯性

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妥切規劃。例如,粘土的表現特質佳,水彩畫的流暢性特 質優於鉛筆、色鉛筆或粉彩筆,但鉛筆類的材料則較容易 控制和表現。本發展階段的美術活動,亦應注重發展兒童 的積極自我形象(positive self-image),鼓勵兒童發展自信 和擴散性思考力(Lowenfeld and Brittain, 1987)。

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鴉到 5.5 歲的年齡。圖式期可能早在 3 歲就開始,也可能 持續延長到 16 歲或更大些。最後的文化寫實期(cultural realism),可能早在 6 歲半即開始,一直延伸到成人階段, 而 有 些 個 體 則 從 未 發 展 到 這 個 時 期 。 沙 勒 門 和 莫 俄 (Salome and Moore,1979)研究兒童的美術發展,則 歸納出五個時期:一、塗鴉期(2~4 歲);二、前圖式期(3 ~7 歲);三、圖式期(6 ~10);四、轉換期(9~12);五、 寫實期(11 歲以後)。轉換期(9~12 歲)的特徵,相當於羅文 費的黨群期(gang age stage),寫實期則相似於羅文費的擬 似寫實期(Anderson, 1992)。

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一、兒童美術是人格的反映

Altschuler 和 Hattwick(1969)進行 150 位幼兒的繪畫 和行為特質之相關性研究,指出兒童選用的色彩和人格特 質具有關聯性。例如,使用暖色調的兒童,人格特質較為 開放和溫暖;使用冷色調的兒童,人格特質傾向於不參與 和抑制性;使用大量黑色的兒童,情緒較為空洞或平淡。 Altschule 和 Hattwick 歸納其研究結果,認為兒童在其繪 畫所反映的特質,與其在社會情境所表現的行為特質相類 似,兒童的美術表現會反映其情緒和人格狀態。

二、兒童美術是智能發展的參考指標

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育服務,效果會更好。

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版印畫等,能夠促社會互動和工作中的自導能力。 5.在藝術媒材的使用上,亦強調選擇適合其生理年齡的

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等美術認知的學習及良好的情感教育,涵養學生美感情操 及健全人格,使學生能夠具有從事藝術創作表現或進入藝 術相關專業領域學習與工作的能力與熱忱,並樂於發揮專 長來貢獻社會。

著名的資優教育學者阮汝理(Renzulli,1977)所提出的 資 優 教 育 「 三 合 充 實 模 式 」 (The Enrichment Triad Model),則可作為美術才能資優教育的參考方案,此模式 包括下列三個步驟與類型(Type)的充實活動 (王文科,民 78;毛連塭,民 78;李琛玫,民 89;蔡典謨,民 87;Davis &Rimm , 1994;Renzulli,1977):

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出版社。 陸雅青譯(民 86):兒童藝術治療。台北:五南圖書出版公 司。 蔡典模(民 87):資優課程原理。載於高雄市政府教育局、 高雄市國民中學資優教育研習中心主編:高雄市國民 中學資優教育資源手冊(23 頁)。高雄市政府教育局印 行。

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Betensky, M. (1987). Phenomenology of therapeutic art expression and art therapy. In J. A. Rubin(ed.),

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Blythe, D. A., Hill, J. P., & Theil, K. S. (1982). Early adolescents’ significant others. Grade and gender differences in perceived relationships with familial and nonfamilial adults and young people. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 11(6), 425-450.

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Davis, G. A. & Rimm, S. B. (1994). Education of the gifted and talented(3rd Ed). Need ham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

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Dennis, W. (1966b). The human figure drawings of Bedowins. Journal of Social Psychology, 52, pp. 209-219.

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Feldman, D. H. (1980). Beyond universals in cognitive development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corp. Feldman, D. H. (1987a). Developmental psychology and

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Angeles CA: The Getty Center for Education in the Arts.

George, D. (1995). Gifted Education-Identification and Provision. London: David Fulton.

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children’s drawings. Doctoral Dissertation. Stanford University.

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Hess-Behrens, N. N. (1973). The development of the concept of space as observed in children’s drawings: A cross-nation/cross-cultural study. National Center for Educational Research and Development (H.E.W. R02-1611).

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ng exceptional children. Boston:Houghton,

Lindstrom, M. (1964). Children’s art. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Lowenfeld, V. (1939). The nature of creative activity. London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Lowenfeld, V. (1945). Tests for visual and haptical

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