School Climate, School Belonging, and Teacher-Student Relationships of Junior High Schools
蕭妙仙、黃德祥
E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The purposes of this study are to explore students’ perceptions of school climate, the sense of school belonging, and teacher-student relationships among junior high school students, to examines the difference on students’ perceptions of school climate, the sense of school belonging, and teacher-student relationships by analyzing the background variables and the relationship among the three main variables, and to develop the multiple regression between criterion and predictors. Moreover, this study develops the structural equation model, which serves the purpose of illustrating the linear structural relationships among the relevant variables. This study used investigation method to test 18 junior high schools in Changhua county, including 520 students, imposed by the personal background, School Climate Scale, School Belonging Scale, and Teacher-student Relationship Scale. Some statistics methods were applied for the data analysis, using SPSS 12.0, and the good-of-fit of structural modeling and the relationships between dominant variables and observing data were investigated, using AMOS 5.0. The research results are that there were significantly differences in gender, grade, numbers of classes concerning school climate, school belonging and teacher-student relationships. School climate, school belonging and teacher-student relationships are significantly correlated. And the data, from school climate and school belonging, can predict the teacher-student relationships well. There was a good fit measure result and the teacher-student relationships in junior high school students had significantly affections on school climate and school belonging.
Keywords : school climate, school belonging, teacher-student relationship Table of Contents
內 容 目 錄 中文摘要 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． iii 英文摘要 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．
．．．． iv 誌謝辭 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． v 內容目錄 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．
．．． vi 表目錄 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． viii 圖目錄 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．
．． ix 第一章 緒論．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 1 第一節 研究動機與目的．．．．．．．．．．．． 1 第 二節 研究問題與假設．．．．．．．．．．．． 5 第三節 名詞釋義．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 6 第四節 研究範圍 與限制．．．．．．．．．．．． 7 第二章 文獻探討．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 9 第一節 學校氛圍的理論與 相關研究．．．．．．． 9 第二節 學校歸屬感的理論與相關研究．．．．．． 16 第三節 師生關係的理論與相關研究．．
．．．．． 24 第三章 研究方法．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 32 第一節 研究架構．．．．．．．．．．．．．
．． 32 第二節 研究對象．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 34 第三節 研究工具．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 35 第四 節 實施程序．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 46 第五節 資料處理與分析．．．．．．．．．．．． 48 第四章 研究方法
．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 54 第一節 背景變項對學校氛圍、學校歸屬感與師生關 係變項之差異分析．．．．
．． 54 第二節 學校氛圍、學校歸屬感、師生關係變項間之 關聯．．．．．．．．．．．． 63 第三節 學校氛圍、學校歸 屬感對師生關係的預測分 析．．．．．．．．．．．．． 66 第四節 各變項結構模式考驗．．．．．．．．．． 68 第五 章 結論與建議．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 76 第一節 結論．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 76 第二節 建議
．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 78 參考文獻 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 82 附錄 A 預試問卷
．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 102 附錄 B 正式問卷．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 105 REFERENCES
一、中文部份 吳清山(1992)，學校效能研究，台北:五南書局。 吳清基(2006)，以優質學校指標追求卓越、優質、精緻、創新之 教育願景
，文教新潮，11(1)，1-11。 黃德祥(2007)，青少年發展與輔導，臺北:五南書局。 秦夢群(2003)，教育行政:理論部分，台北:五南書局。
二、英文部分 American Psychological Association (2003). Presidential task force on prevention, promoting strength, resilience, and health in young people. American Psychologist, 58(6), 425-490. Anderman, E. M. (2003). School effects on psychological outcomes during adolescence.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(4), 795-809. Argyris, C. (1958). Some problems in conceptualizing organizational climate: A case study of a bank. Administrative Science Quarterly, 2(4), 501-520. -83- Arthur, M., Gordon, C., & Butterfield, N. (2003). Classroom Management: Creating positive learning environments. Southbank, Victoria: Thomson. Aviles, R. D., Guerrero, M. P., Howarth, H. B., & Glenn, T. (1999). Perceptions of
Chicano/Latino students who have dropped out of school. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77(1), 465-473. Barba, R., & Cardinale, L.
(1991). Are females invisible students? An investigation of teacher-student questioning interactions. School Science and Mathematics, 91(7), 306-310. Barrett, M. (1991). Attachment behaviour and the schoolchild :An introduction to educational therapy. London: Routledge. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497-529. Booker, K. C. (2004). Exploring school belonging and academic achievement in African American adolescents.
Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue, 6(2), 131-143. Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development.
London: Basic Books. Bowlby, J. (2000). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory. London: Routledge. Brand, S., Felner, R., Shim, M., Seitsinger, A., & Dumas, T. (2003). Middle school improvement and reform: Development and validation of a school-level assessment of climate, cultural pluralism, and school safety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(3), 570-588. Brazelton, T., & Greenspan, S. (2000). The irreducible needs of children: What every child must have to grow, learn, and flourish (1st ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Publishing.
Brekelmans, M., Wubbels, T., & Levy, J. (1993). Student performance, attitudes, instructional strategies and teacher-communication style. In T.
Wubbels & J. Levy (Eds.), Do you know what you look like? Interpersonal Relationships in Education. London: Routledge Falmer. Bretherton, I.
(1992). The origin of attachment theory : John Bowlby and Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology, 28(5), 759-775. Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K.
P., Oesterie, S., Fleming, C. B., & Hawkins, J. D. (2004). The importance of bonding to schools for healthy development: Findings from the social development research group. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 252-262. Charles, C. M. (2008). Building classroom discipline (9th ed.). Boston: Allyn
& Bacon. Cheung, H. Y., & Hui, K. F. S. (2003). Mainland immigrant and Hong Kong local students’ psychological sense of school membership.
Asia Pacific Education Review, 4(1), 67-74. Cohen, J. (2001). Social and emotional education: Core principles and practices. In J. Cohen (Ed.).
Caring classrooms/intelligent schools: The social emotional education of young children. New York: Teachers College Press [Online]. Available:
www.csee.net/resources/selbook/. Cohen, J. (2006). Social, emotional, ethical and academic education: Creating a climate for learning, participation in democracy and well-being. Harvard Educational Review, 76(2), 201-237. Crosnoe, R., Johnson. M. K., & Elder, G. H. (2004).
School size and the interpersonal side of education: An examination of race/ethnicity and organizational context. Social Science Quarterly, 85(5), 1259-1274. Davis, H. A. (2003).Conceptualizing the role and influence of student teacher relationships on children's social and cognitive
development . Educational Psychologist, 38(4), 207-234. Davis, H. A., Davis, S., Smith, T., & Capa, Y. (2003). Exploring the social contexts of motivation and achievement: The role of relationship quality, classroom climate, and subject matter. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Tampa, FL. Davis, H. A., Schutz, P. A., Chambliss, C. B., & Couch, K. N. (2001). Making the connection: A multi-method case study of relationships between students and teachers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life's domains. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 49(3), 14-23. Dellar, G. B., & Giddings, G. J. (1991). School organizational climate and school improvement. (ERIC No.ED 333563). Durlak, J. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2005). A major meta-analysis of positive youth development programs. Invited presentation at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC. Einarsson, C., & Granstrom, K. (2002). Gender-biased Interaction in the Classroom: The Influence of Gender and Age in the Relationship Between Teacher and Pupil.
Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 46(2), 117-127. Elizabeth, W. S., & Pianta, R. C. (2001). Teacher’s perceptions of their
relationships with students: Effects of child age, gender, and ethnicity of teachers and students. School Psychology Quarterly, 16(2), 125-141. Evans, P. M. (2003). A principal’s dilemmas: Theory and reality of school redesign. Phi Delta Kappan, 84(6), 424-436. Faircloth, B. S., & Hamm, J. V.
(2005). Sense of belonging among high school students representing 4 ethnic groups. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(4), 293-309.
Feigenberg, L. F. (2007). Context matters: The influence of school climate on early adolescents’ behavior and social development. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Retrieved on August 28, 2008 from Proquest Dissertations. (UMI No. 3271680) Felner, R. D., & Felner, T. Y.
(1989). Primary prevention programs in an ecological context: A transactional-ecological framework and analysis. In L. Bond & B. Compas (Eds.), Primary prevention in the schools. Beverly Hills: Sage. Finn, J. D. (1989). Withdrawing from school. Review of Educational Research, 59(2), 117-142. Finnan, C., Schnepel, K., & Anderson, L. (2003). Powerful learning environments: the critical link between school and classroom cultures.
Journal of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 8 (4), 391-418. Fisher S. (1981). Race, class, anomie, and academic achievement: A study at the high school level. Urban Education, 16(2), 149-173. Fraser, B. J., Anderson, G. J., & Wahlberg, H. J. (1991). Assessment of learning environments:
Manual for Learning Environment Inventory (LEI and My Class Inventory). Perth, Australia: Curtin University of Technology, Science and Mathematics Education Center. Fraser, B. J., & Walberg, H. J. (2005). Research on teacher–student relationships and learning environments:
Context, retrospect and prospect. International Journal of Educational Research, 43(1), 103–109. Freeman, T. H., & Anderman, L. H. (2001).
Changes in students’ school belonging in rural and urban middle school. Poster presented at annual meeting of the American educational research association, Seattle, WA. Freeman, T. M., Anderman, L. H., & Jensen, J. M. (2007). Sense of belonging in college freshmen at the classroom and campus levels. Journal of Experimental Education, 75(3), 203-220. Freese, S. F. (1999). The relationship between teacher caring and student engagement in academic high school classes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York. Freiberg, H. J.
(1998). Measuring school climate: Let me count the ways. Educational Leadership, 56(1), 22-26. Ghaith, G. (2003). The relationship between forms of instruction, achievement and perceptions of classroom climate. Educational Researcher, 45(1), 83-93. Goldstein, L., & Lake, V. (2000). Love, love, and more love for children: exploring preservice teachers' understandings of caring. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(8), 861-872.
Gonzalez, R., & Padilla, A. M. (1997). The academic resilience of Mexican American high school students. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral
Sciences, 19(3), 301-317. Goodenow, C. (1992). Strengthening the links between educational psychology and the study of social contexts.
Educational Psychologist, 27(2), 177-196. Goodenow, C. (1993a). The psychological sense of school membership among adolescents: Scale development and educational correlates. Psychology in the Schools, 30(1), 79-90. Goodenow, C. (1993b). Classroom belonging among early adolescent students: Relationships to motivation and achievement. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13(1), 21-43. Goodenow, C., & Grady, K. E.
(1993). The relationship of school belonging and friends’ values to academic motivation among urban adolescent students. Journal of
Experimental Education, 62(1), 60-71. Griffin, J. L. (2001). Teacher-student relationship quality and writing performance. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, Denver, Colorado. Hagbory, W. J. (1995). An investigation of a brief measure of school membership. Journal of Adolescence, 99(1), 461-468. Hagerty, B., & Patusky, K. (1995). Developing a measure of sense of belonging. Nursing Research, 44 (1), 246-251.
Halpin, A. W., ＆ Croft, D. B. (1963). The organizational climate of schools. Chicago: University of Chicago. Hartly, M., & Hoy, W. K. (1972).
Openness of school climate and alienation of high school students. Journal of Educational Research, 23(1), 17-24. Hawkins, J. D., & Weis, J. G.
(1985). The social development model: An integrated approach to delinquency prevention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 6(2), 73-97. Haynes, N.
M., Emmons, C., & Comer, J. P. (1993). Elementary and middle school climate survey. New Haven, CT. Yale University Child Study Center.
Hothersall, D. (1995). History of Psychology (pp. 239-253). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Hoy, W. K., & Clover, I. R. (1986). Elementary school climate: A revision of OCDQ. Educational Administration Quarterly, 22(1), 93-110. Humphrey, L. L. (1984). Children's self-control in relation to perceived social environment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(1), 178-188. Ibanez, Kuperminc, Jurkovic, & Perilla. (2004).
Cultural attributes and adaptations linked to achievement motivation among Latino adolescents. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 33(6), 559-568.
Johnson, W. L., & Johnson, A. M. (1997). Assessing the validity of scores on the Charles F. Kettering Scale for the junior high school. Educational
& Psychological Measurement, 57(5), 858-869. Johnson, W. L., & Johnson, M. (1993). Validity of the quality of school life scale: A primary and second-order factor analysis. Educational & Psychological Measurement, 53(1), 145-153. Johnson, W. L., Johnson, A. M., & Zimmerman, K.
(1996). Assessing school climate priorities: A Texas study. The Clearing House, 70(2), 64-66. Johnson, W. L., Johnson, A. M., Gott, R., &
Zimmerman, K. (1997). Assessing the validity of scores on the Charles F. Kettering Scale for the junior high school. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 57(5), 858-869. Jones, V. F., & Jones, L. S. (2007). Comprehensive classroom management:Creating positive learning environments (8th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31-36. Karcher, M. J. (2002).
Connectedness and school violence: A framework for developmental interventions. In E. Gerler (Ed.), Handbook of school violence (pp. 7-40).
Binghamton, NY: Haworth. Klem, A. M., & Connell, J. P. (2004). Relationship matters:linking teacher support to student engagement and achievement. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 262-273. Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2006). Educational Psychology for Learning and Teaching (2nd ed.). Southbank, Victoria: Nelson Australia Pty Ltd. Kuperminc, G. P., Leadbeater, B. J., & Blatt, S. J. (2001). School social climate and individual differences in vulnerability to psychopathology among middle school students. Journal of School Psychology, 39(2), 141-159. Lee, V.
E., Ready, D. D., & Johnson, D. J. (2001). The difficulty of identifying rare samples to study: The case of high schools divided in
schools-within-schools. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(4), 365-379. Levy, K. N., Blatt, S. J., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Attachment styles and parental representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 407-419. Lewin, K. (1943). Defining the "Field at a Given Time." Psychological Review, 50, 292-310. Republished in Resolving Social Conflicts & Field Theory in Social Science, Washington, D.C.:
American Psychological Association, 1997. Litwin, G.., & Stringer, R. (1968). Motivation and organizational climate. Boston: Harvard Business School Research Press. Loukas, A. (2007). What is school climate? Leadership Compass, 5(1) [Online]. Available:
http://www.naesp.org/Leadership. Ma, X. (2003). Sense of belonging to school: can schools make a difference? Journal of Educational Research, 96(6), 340-349. Manning, M. L., & Saddlemire, R. (1996). Developing a sense of community in secondary schools. National Association of
Secondary School Principals. NASSP Bulletin, 80(584), 41-48. McEvoy, A. & Welker, R.(2000). Antisocial behavior, Academic Failure , and School Climate: A Critical Review. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8(3), 130-140. McInerney, D., & McInerney, V. (2006). Educational psychology: Constructing learning (4th ed.). Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Education Australia. McMillan, D. W., & Chavis, D. M. (1986). Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23. McNeely, C. A., Nonnemaker, J. M., & Blum, R. W.
(2002). Promoting student connectedness to school: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of School Health, 72(4), 138-146. Moos, R. H. (1979). Evaluating educational environments: Procedures, measures, findings and policy implications. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Morrison, G. M., Cosden, M. A., O'Farrell, S. L., & Campos, E. (2003). Changes in Latino students' perceptions of school belonging over time: Impact of language proficiency, self-perceptions and teacher evaluations. California School Psychologist, 8(1), 87-98. Murray, C., & Greenberg, M. T.(2006). Examining the importance of social relationships and social contexts in the lives of children with high-incidence disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 39(4), 220-233. Najaka, S. S., Gottfredson, D. C., & Wilson, D. B. (2002). A meta-analytic inquiry into the relationship between selected risk factors and problem behavior. Prevention Science, 2(4), 257- 271. National Association of Secondary School Principals (1996). Breaking ranks: Changing an American institution. Reston, VA:Author. National Association of Secondary School Principals.
(2004). Breaking ranks II: Strategies for leading high school reform. Reston, VA: Author. Oldfather, P., & McLaughlin, J. (1993). Gaining and losing voice: A longitudinal study of students' continuing impulse to learn across elementary and middle level contexts. Research in Middle Level Education, 17(1), 1-25. Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 323-367. Owens, R. G., & Valesky, T. C. (2007). Organizational behavior in education: Adaptive leadership and school reform (9th ed.). Boston:
Allyn and Bacon. Patrick, H., Anderman, L. H., & Ryan, A. M. (2002). Social motivation in the classroom social environment. In C. Midgley (Ed),
Goal, goal structures, and patterns of adaptive learning, (pp. 85-108). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Peterson, R., & Skiba, R. (2001). Creating school climates that prevent school violence. Social Studies, 92(4), 167-175. Pianta, R. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers (1st ed.). Washington, Ddistrict of Columbia: American Psychological Association. Pianta, R., Stuhlman, M., & Hamre, B.(2002). How schools can do better; fostering stronger connections between teachers and students. New Directions for Youth Development, 93(1), 91-107. Ready, D. D., Lee, V. E., & Welner, K. G. (2004). Educational equity and school structure:School size, overcrowding, and
schools-within-schools. Teachers College Record, 106(10), 1989-2014. Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K.
M., Jones, J., Tabor, J., Beuhring, T., Sieving, R. E., Shew, M., Ireland, M., Bearinger, L., & Udry, J. R. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm:
Findings from the national longitudinal study on adolescent health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(10), 823-832. Rietz, T. A.
(2001). Students' perceptions of motivation: The importance of the student-teacher relationship. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, National Louis University, Evansion, Illinois. Rodriguez, N. (2002). Gender differences in disciplinary approaches. (ERIC Document SP041019). Roeser, R. W., Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. C. (1996). Perceptions of the school psychological environment and early adolescents’ psychological and behavioral functioning in school: The mediating role of goals and belonging. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(3), 408-422. Rosenfeld, L. B., Richman, J.
M., & Bowen, G. L.(2000). Social support networks and school outcomes: The centrality of the teacher. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 17(3), 205-226. Russell, D. W. (1996). UCLA loneliness scale (version3) : reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(1),20-40. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78 Sadker, D., & Sadker, M. (1993). Gender and educational equality. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Sanchez, B., Colon, Y., & Esparza, P. (2005). The role of sense of school belonging and gender in the academic adjustment of Latino adolescents.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(6), 619-628. Smerdon, B. A. (2002). Students’ perceptions of membership in their high schools. Sociology of Education, 75(4), 287-305. Smith, K. M. (2008). The impact of district and school climate on student achievement. Doctoral dissertation, The College of William and Mary, Retrieved on August 28, 2008 from Proquest Dissertations. (UMI No. 3302005) Smith, P. A., Hoy, W. K., &
Sweetland, S. R. (2003). Organizational health of high schools and dimensions of faculty trust. Journal of School Leadership, 11(1), 135-150.
Solomon, D., Battistich, V., Watson, M., Schaps, E., & Lewis, C. (2000). A six-district study of educational change: direct and mediated effects of the child development project. Social Psychology of Education, 4(1), 3-51. Stipek, D. (2006). Relationships Matter. Educational Leadership. 64(1), 46-49. Sztejnberg, A., den Brok, P., & Hurek, J. (2004). Preferred teacher-student interpersonal behaviour: Differences between polish primary and higher education students' perceptions. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 39(2), 32-40. Tagiuri, R. (1968). The concept of organizational climate.
In R. Tagiuri & G. W. Litwin (Eds.), Organizational climate: Explorations of a concept (pp. 1-32). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Division of
Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University. Taylor, D. E. (2008). The influence of climate on student achievement in elementary schools. Doctoral dissertation, The George Washington University, Retrieved on August 28, 2008 from Proquest Dissertations. (UMI No. 3297071) Torney-Purta, J. (2002). The school's role in developing civic engagement: A study of adolescents in twenty-eight countries. Applied Developmental Science, 6(4), 203-212. Trickett, E., & Moos, R. H. (1973). The social environment of junior high and high school classrooms.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 65(1), 93-102. Valesky, T. (1990). Baseline data on school climate, classroom climate, and self concept in schools using school based decision making. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association, New Orleans LA.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED326951) van Horn, M. L. (2003). Assessing the unit of measurement for school climate through psychometric and outcome analyses of the School Climate Survey. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63(6), 1002-1019. Willms, J. D.
(2003). Student engagement at school: A sense of belonging and participation. Results from PISA 2000. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Winston, J. H. (1998). School membership among students with learning disability and no disability students in a semi rural high school. Psychology in the Schools, 35(2), 1-12. Wubbels, T., Brekelmans, M., & Hooymayers, H. (1991). Interpersonal teacher behavior in the classroom. In B. J. Fraser & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Educational environments: Evaluation, antecedents and consequences (pp.
141-160). Oxford, England: Pergamon Press. Wubbles, T., & Levy, J. (1997). Paying attention to relationships. Educational Leadership, 54(7), 82-86. Youniss, J., Bales, S., Christmas-Best, V., Diversi, M., McLaughlin, M., & Silbereisen, R. (2002). Youth civic engagement in the twenty-first century. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12(1), 121-148.
