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二、剛性文本主義的興起
傳統制定法解釋進路的想像式重構與忠實代理人或嚴格權力分立原則,在 80 年代遭受了強力的批判。這些批判可分為二類,分別為質疑立法目的主義的 發現或還原成果不可信賴,以及質疑忠實代理人的權力分立原則不僅不嚴格,還 混亂了國家機關間應有的份際。在這二類批評盛行的同時期,Scalia 法官進入了 聯邦最高法院。Scalia 大法官將自己原本擔任聯邦法官時期所抱持的較為緩和的 文本主義,改變為強硬的文本主義。伴隨著傳統進路飽受攻擊的風潮以及 Scalia 大法官在判決主文和意見書中持續倡議的剛性文本主義,傳統進路的主流地位就 逐漸地被瓦解。
(一)對立法目的主義的批評 1.解釋可信賴性批評
想像式重構預設了,立法者原意或目的是可以被還原、重構或發現的。但這 個預設從 30 年代起就不斷受到法律實在論(legal realism)的擁護者,如 Max Radin 等人的挑戰。73根據 Radin,所謂還原或發現立法者原意或目的,充其量只 是解釋者自行建構出來的產物。因為,立法者原意或目的預設它屬於一個具確定 性的集合或單一的意圖,然而,實際上並不存在這樣的事物。
假設有一位眾議院議員正在討論某個法案,他的意圖可能包括一系列複雜的
73 如 Max Radin, Statutory Interpretation, 43HARV.L.REV. 863, 870-72 (1930) (質疑美國法院所沿 襲的立法者意圖表達於字詞中,因此法律解釋要探詢立法者意圖的原則。Radin 主張,立法 者意圖是不可能被發現的,因為我們難以說數百位國會議員對欲通過的法案的爭執項有相 同的相法,從而能成為一個確定的意圖。Radin 指出,即便立法者意圖表達於字詞中,但我 們能做的是解釋法律字詞以實現立法者意圖,而不是用想像的方式去理解法律,後者根本是 無稽之談); William Robert Bishin, The Law Finders: An Essay in Statutory Interpretation, 38 S.
CAL.L.REV. 1 (1965); James Alexander Corry, The Use of Legislative History in the Interpretation of Statutes, 32 CAN B.REV. 624 (1954); Jacobus TenBroek, Admissibility of Congressional Debates in Statutory Construction by the United States Supreme Court, 25CALIF.L.REV. 326 (1937);
Frederick Reed Dickerson, Statutory Interpretation: A Peek into the Mind and Will of a Legislature, 50 IND.L.J. 206 (1975); James McCauley Landis, A Note on “Statutory Interpretation,” 43 HARV. L.REV. 886 (1930).
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到了 80 年代,公共選擇理論(public choice theory)對重構立法者原意的合 理性提出新一輪攻擊。74Frank Easterbrook 法官曾根據公共選擇理論的論證來主 張,法官倚賴立法史資料來辨別立法者原意,結果跟法官自己胡亂猜想沒有兩樣。 (1987) (Farber 和 Frickey 在這篇文章整理公共選擇理論對利益團體影響了國會的公共政策 形成與立法的批評,以及其他批判立法過程與公共政策形成的學說發展。但 Farber 與 Frickey 也批評,這些主張有相當部份對利益團體與公共政策形成間的關係的立論過於簡化,最後他 們分析反省立法過程的理論對於公共政策形成與公法的制定能有什麼法學上的意涵). Abner Joseph Mikva, Symposium on the Theory of Public Choice, 74 VA.L.REV. 167 (1988) (Abner Mikva 法官是一個柔性的或折衷的立法目的主義者,這篇文章對公共選擇理論提出質疑, “After studying the articles in this symposium, I realize why I have found it hard to read or to profit from the ‘public choice’ literature.”); Abner Mikva 法官的主張還可參考 A Reply to Judge Starr’s Observations, 1987 DUKE L.J.380 (1980).
75 Frank H. Easterbrook, Statutes’ Domains, 50 U.CHI.L. REV. 533, 547-48 (1983) (“Because legislatures comprise many members, they do not have “intents” or “designs,” hidden yet discoverable... it recognizes that courts cannot reconstruct and original meaning because there is none to find…This follows from the discoveries of public choice theory…In practice, the order of decisions and logrolling are not total bars to judicial understanding. But they are so integral to the legislative process that judicial predictions of how the legislature would have decided issues it did not in fact decide are bound to be little more than wild guess, and thus to lack the legitimacy that might be accorded to astute guesses.”). (emphasis added) 對 Easterbrook 法官的反駁以及批判反 省公共選擇理論的法學意涵,請見 Daniel A. Farber & Philip P. Frickey, supra note 73, at 906-24.
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Rehnquist 大法官在不同意意見中運用想像式重構的立論,事實上大有問題。請見 WILLIAM N.ESKRIDGE,JR.,PHILIP P.FRICKEY AND ELIZABETH GARRETT,supra note 32,at 218-20.
77 請見WILLIAM H.RIKER, LIBERALISM AGAINST POPULISM (1982); Riker, The Paradox of Voting and Congressional Rules for Voting on Amendments, 52 AM.POL.SCI.REV. 349, 352-62 (1958).
78 請 見 Morris P. Fiorina, Legislator Uncertainty, Legislative Control, and the Delegation of Legislative Power, 2 J.L.ECON.&ORG. 33, 49 (1986) (批評委員會本身經常難以代表整個議 會,從而其記錄的代表性難以信賴).
79 Eskridge 與 Frickey 和 Garrett 在 2000 年將這個公共選擇理論對立法過程的批評再簡化為二 個概念—加總問題(aggregation problem)和歸因問題(attribution problem)。加總問題即上
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第二類批評,我們難以將某國會議員的意見、陳詞視為立法者意圖的代表。Eskridge 與 Frickey 和 Garrett 認為,所有的 intentionalism,也就是本文用以統稱所有 intentionalism 的立法目的 主義,都共享這二個困難。請見 WILLIAM N.ESKRIDGE,JR.,PHILIP P.FRICKEY AND ELIZABETH GARRETT,supra note 32, at 218-22.80 形式主義的基本概念請見 Frederick Schauer, Formalism, 97YALE L. J. 509, 510 note 68 (1988) (“At the heart of the word “formalism,” in many of its numerous uses, lies the concept of decision-making according to rule.”); 以及 Richard A. Posner, Legal Formalism, Legal Realism, and The Interpretation of Statutes and the Constitution, 37CASE W.RES.L.REV. 179, 180-182 (1987) (“I want it to mean the use of deductive logic to derive the outcome of a case from premises accepted as authoritative. Formalism enables a commentator to pronounce the outcome of the case as being correct or incorrect, in approximately the same way that the solution to a mathematical problem can be pronounced correct or incorrect.”). (emphasis added)
81 Posner 法官曾精準表述形式主義者對於法官裁判與法律客觀意義之間的必然聯繫的信念,
請見 RICHARD A.POSNER,REFLECTIONS ON JUDGING 4-5 (2013) (“The character of legal formalism can be captured in such slogans as “the law made me to it” or “the law is its own thing.” The law as seen from the formalist perspective is a compendium of texts, like the Bible, and the task of the judge or other legal analyst is to discern and apply the internal logic of the compendium…”).
(emphasis added)
82 以下形式主義者的三個攻擊路線整理自 William N. Eskridge, Jr., supra note 38, at 646-50.