本文透過政治生態學的觀點，探究馬來屬邦時期迄今，政治與經濟力量如何形塑農業生 產外部條件，影響居鑾河農業土地利用；此外，也借用「農糧鏈」的研究概念，建構各時期 園丘經營人文生態系統，以瞭解系統中「土地與土地的關係」、「園丘主與勞力組織、技術組 織的關係」與「園丘主與園丘的關係」等三個次系統的運作。
馬來屬邦時期，由於美英等國橡膠與汽車工業的發展，以及歐洲市場對於植物性油脂的 需求，促使馬來半島掀起新的種植熱潮，由於自然環境的限制，以及歐洲市場的需求，居鑾 河區小園主選擇較能適應環境特性的椰子來栽植，烘製椰乾，銷售至歐洲。獨立初期，受到 合成橡膠的威脅，政府欲降低對天然橡膠的出口依賴，推行農業多樣化政策；同一時期，全 球椰油需求量大增，椰油市場因而興起。對馬來西亞的椰子種植業而言，椰油市場提供一個 發展的動力。不過，由於椰園的經營環境惡化，椰子產量下降，無法滿足椰油市場的需求。
因此政府藉由椰園翻種計劃，解決農業排水問題，協助居鑾河區小園主翻種椰園，以及間作 可可與咖啡等經濟作物，達到農業多樣化的目的。1970 年以降，面對東南亞各國椰油業的競 爭，非洲棕油產油國的產能不足，促使政府轉而推動油棕種植業的發展；不過，面對其他植 物性油類的市場競爭，油棕種植業必須計劃性與有限度的發展。因此，政府透過公私部門的 投資，改善農業生產外部條件，奠定油棕種植業的發展基礎。藉由上述的發展基礎，方能降 低園丘主轉作油棕的投資風險，保障園丘主農產的銷售市場，引導園丘主投入油棕種植業的 行列。不過居鑾河區土壤排水不佳，不利於油棕樹根系的發展，理應無法發展油棕種植業。
因此，政府透過「西柔佛農業發展計劃」，協助居鑾河區小園主改善排水不佳的種植環境，分 擔小園主部分轉作成本；加上，比較椰園和油棕園經營的生產條件，得知油棕獲利高於椰子，
增強小園主決定轉作油棕的動機。
由上可知，各時期的園丘作物明顯地隨著市場需求與國家政策而嬗遞更替，導致居鑾河 區農業土地利用隨之更迭。然而，在這樣政治與經濟力量所形塑出來的農業發展環境下，居 鑾河區園丘經營的人文生態系統之變遷具有那些特色？
一、土地與土地的關係
居鑾河區的椰乾大多是由本地收購商運往新加坡，轉銷歐洲，作為榨製椰油的原料。在 居鑾河區，椰乾通常是由本地二盤商向小園主收購後，會立即售予本地的頭盤商。頭盤商會
區透過椰乾的銷售途徑，納入歐洲市場體系中。
期的公共部門的投資，轉變到公私部門的投資，試圖藉由不同的媒介，由上而下傳遞技術與 資訊予小園主，降低小園主的生產自主性。
從上所述可發現，隨著外部環境的轉變，小園主必須不斷地從園丘外，獲得勞力、技術 與資訊等生產要素，維持園丘的經營，方能收成作物，出售換取現金。
三、園丘主與園丘的關係
在獨立前椰園的營養循環中，營養回流比例僅達 50%。這些回流的營養素來自於椰樹的 殘枝敗葉。園丘主不但未設法維護地力，依然僅仰賴殘枝敗葉的營養，維持園丘的地力，促 使土壤肥力的能量與營養流動逐年逸失，地力漸耗損，產量下降。
鑑於獨立前椰園地力流失，造成椰園生產力下降，因此政府開始教授園丘主施肥技術，
並發放化學肥料予園丘主。除了園丘的有機肥外，小園主也開始依賴外來化肥營養，提供椰 樹與間作作物所需的營養素，增加椰園生產力，提高小園主的收入。
獨立後，小園主擔心間作作物會與油棕樹相互競肥，造成油棕產量不足，收入因而大大 降低。因此，在轉作油棕後，小園主大多放棄間作其他經濟作物，改為單一種植，但也造成 農業收入來源減少。為了彌補收入來源的減少，小園主只好試圖提高油棕產量，以增加日後 出售油棕的收入，所以小園主會向農業行或地方收集站，購買所需的化肥來施用，提供油棕 樹生長所需的營養，增加油棕產量，以達到提高農家收益之目的。
由上可知，在市場需求、國家力量等外部刺激，或是地力耗損等內部積累的影響下，園 丘主會開始自園丘外部，設法購得外來化肥營養，維持作物生長所需的營養素。當園丘經營 對於外來營養的依賴愈深時，小園主與土地的關係愈加疏離。
綜上所述，可知居鑾河區農業土地利用的變化即是小園主的農業決策對於外部環境的回 應。在回應的過程中，自然環境對於小園主的農業決策影響甚大，促使小園主無法順應市場 需求。為了經濟發展，國家會透過公共投資或其他管道，改變農業發展的外部條件，會逐漸 削弱自然環境對於小園主作物選擇的限制，讓小園主盡量順應市場需求來進行園丘經營。一 旦市場需求與國家力量對於園丘經營的影響增強時，小園主會逐漸喪失自主性，也造成園丘 經營的人文生態系統愈趨於開放，進而增強對於外部環境的依賴。
參考文獻
契波拉編，張彬村編譯
1965 〈柔佛及其港主制度〉，《南洋文摘》，6，頁 29-31。
陳國川、林佳慧
2008 〈臺南縣南化鄉菜寮溪流域芒果產銷的人文生態系統〉，《臺灣文獻》， 59：4，頁 199-233。
陳國川
Abdul Halim Hassan
1990 Recent Developments in the Malaysian Palm Oil Industry, Kuala Lumpur:
Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia.
Bassett, T. J. and Zuéli, K. B.
2003 “The Ivorian Savanna: Global Narratives and Local Knowledge of
Environmental Change”, in Zimmerer, K. S. and Bassett, T. J. (eds)
Political ecology : an integrative approach to geography and environment-development studies, New York; London: the Guilford
Press,pp115-136.Blaikie, P. M
1985 The political economy of soil erosion in developing countries, London ; New York: Longman Press.
Blaikie, P. M. and Brookfield, H. C.
1987 Land Degradation and Soceity, London: Methuen Press.
Bowler, I. R.
1992 “The Industrialization of Agriculture”, in Boler, I. R. (ed) The Geography
of Agriculutre in Developed Market Economies, England : Longman
Scientific & Technical ; New York : Wiley, pp7-31.Brierley, J. H.
1994 Spices: The Story of Indonesia’s Spice Trade, Kula Lumpur: Oxford University Press.
Bryant, R. L. and Bailey S.
1997 Third World Political Ecology, London: New York: Routledge.
Bunting, B., Georgi, C. D. V. and Milsum, J. N.
1934 The Oil Palm In Malaya, Kuala Lumpur: Department of Agriculture, Straits Settlement and Federated Malay States.
Commonwealth Secretariat
1968 Vegetable Oils and Oilseeds: A Review, London: Commonwealth Secretariat.
David S. Y., Wong
1975 Tenure and Land Dealings in the Malay States, Singapore: Singapore University .
Drabble, J. H.
1973 Rubber in Malaya: 1876-1922, London: Oxford University Press.
Federation of Malaya
1956 Second Five-Year Plan 1961-1965, Kuala Lumpur: Federation of Malaya Grist, D. H.
1950 An Outlinge of Malayan Agriculture, London: Crown Agents for the Colonies.
IBRD and Malaysia
1974 Loan Agreement ( Western Johore Agricultural Development Project ) Jackson, J. C.
Malaya, 1786-1921, Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press.
Jin-Bee, Ooi
1963 Land, People and Economy in Malaya, London: Longmans.
Johor Government
1924 Johore Government Gazette, Novermber 19th, p524.
Kalpagé, F.S.C.P
1979 Soils and Fertilizers for Plantations in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur:
Percetakan Jiwabaru Sdn. Bhd.
Khoo Soo Gim
1995 Population report for mukim, Kuala Lumpur: Department of Statistics Malaysia.
Malaysia
1971 Second Malaysia Plan 1971-1975, Kuala Lumpur: Government.
Malaya Superintendent of Census
1957 Population census: Report No. 6, Kuala Lumpur: Malaya (Federation).
Superintendent of Census.
Manpal Singh S and O E. Karpal Singh
1989 Malaysian Palm Oil in the Intrnational Market for Fats and Oils, Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya
Mohamed Ibrhim Munshi
1975 The Voyages of Mohamed Ibrahim Munshi. Trans. With an Indtroduction by by Amin Sweeney and Nigel Phillips, Kuala Lumpur; London; New York:
Oxford University Press.
Mohammad Redzuan Othman
2006 “The Arabs Migration and Its Importance in the Historical Development of the Late Ninettnth and Early Twentieth Century Malaya”, presented at the
15
thAnnual World History Association Conference, pp1-41.
Nair, R.
1968 “The Coconut Industry in West Malaysia Past Performance and Future Prospects”, The Coconut industry in West Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: Federal Agricultural Marketing Authority, pp12-39.
Nesamalar Nadarajah Nee Ramanathan
2000 Johore and the origins of British control, 1895-1914, Kuala Lumpur:
Arenabuku.
Othman bin Mohd. Lela
1972 “ The Coconut Replanting and Rehabilitation Scheme in West Malaysia”, in Wasite, R. L. and Earp, D. A. (eds) Cocoa and Coconuts in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: Incorporated Society of Planters, pp444-448.
Pakkianathan S. and Govindasywamy, O D.
1994 Malaysian Palm Oil Industry: An Economic Analysis, Kuala Lumpur:
University of Malaya.
Pletcher, J.
1988 “Public Interventions in the Agricultural Market in Malaysia: Rice and Palm Oil”, in Fatimah Mohd. Arshad (eds) ,Malaysian Agricultural Policy:
Issue and Directions, Selangor: Centre for Agricultural Policies Studies,
Universiti Pertanian Malaysia.Recter, D. H., Leach, J. R. and Lim, Kian Peng
1972 “Cost of Prodcution and Expected Return From Cocoa Planted Under Coconuts” in Wastie, R. L. Wastie & Earp, D. A.（eds） Cocoa and Coconuts in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: Incorporated Society of Planters, p251-268.
Robbins, P.
2004 Political Ecology：A Critical Introduction, Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub.
Sampson, H. C.
1923 The coconut palm: the science and practice of coconut cultivation, London:
J. Bale, Sons & Danielsson.
Selvadurai, S.
1968 A Preliminary Report on the Survey of Coconut Small-Holdings in West
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Agriculture & Co-operatives.
Sivaram, D.
1980 Review of Coffee in West Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia.
Snodgrass, K.
1928 Copra and coconut oil, California: Food Research Institute.
Straits Settlements. Vegetable Oils Committee
1934 Report of a committee appointed by His Excellency the Officer
Administering the Government of the Straits Settlements and High Commissioner for the Malay States to investigate and report on the present economic condition of the coconut and other vegetable oil producing industries in Malaya, Kuala Lumpur: Printed at the Federated Malay States
Government.Tan Sri Dató Seri Haji Basir Ismail
2005 Land and Agricultural Policy: A Mismatch, Kula Lumpur: Malaysia Palm Oil Board.
Tate, D. J. M.
Economic and Socila Change, London: OxFord University.
Trocki, C. A.
2007 Prince of Pirates-The Temenggongs and the Development of Johor and
Singapore 1784-1885, Singapore: NUS.
Vlieland, C. A.
1932 A report on the 1931 census and on certain problems of vital statistics, London: Crown Agents for the Colonies.
Watts, M. and Peet, R.
2004 “Liberating Political Ecology”, in Peet, R. and Watts, M. (eds) Liberation
ecologies: environment, development, social movements, London; New
York: Routledge, pp3-47.Wee, Y. C. and Tay, T. H.
1968 Pineapple Cultivation in West Malaysia, Johore: Pineapple Research Station and Malayan Pineapple Industry Board.
Williams, C. N.
1975 The Agronomy of the Major Tropical Crops, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University
Wilson, T. B.
1958 The West Johore Coconut Production Survey, Kuala Lumpur: Department of Agriculture. Society of Planters, pp127-135.
Wood, B. J.
1986 A Brief Guid to Oil Palm Science, Kula Lumpur: The Incorporated Society Planter.
Zimmerer, K. S. and Bassett, T. J.
2003 “Approaching Political Ecology: Society, Nature, and Scale in Human-Environment Studies”, in Zimmerer, K. S. and Bassett, T. J. (eds)
Political ecology : an integrative approach to geography and
environment-development studies, New York; London: the Guilford
Press,1-28.二、論文∕期刊
Bassett, T. J.
1988 The Political Ecoogy of Peasant-Herder Conflicts in the Nothern Ivory Coast, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 78, pp453-472.
Bryant, R. L
1992 Political Ecology An emerging research agenda in Third-World studies,
Political Geography, Vol. 11:1, pp12-36
Carney, J.
1993 Converting the Wetland, Engedering the Environment: The Intersection of Gender with Agrarian Change in the Gambia, Economic Geography, Vol 69:
4, pp329-348.
Chapman, M. D.
1989. The Political Ecology of Fisheries Depletion in Amazonia, Environmental
Conservation, Vol. 16: 4, pp330-337.
Dodds, D. J.
1998 Lobster in the Rain Forest: The Political Ecology of The Political Ecology of Miskito Wage Labor and Agricultural Deforestation, Political Ecology Vol. 5, pp83-108.
Daniels R. and Bassett, T. J.
2002 The Spaces of Conservation and Development around Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya, The Professional Geographer, Vol. 54: 4, pp481-490。
Grossman, L.
1977 Man-Environment Realationships in Anthropology and Geography,
Association of American Geographers, Vol. 67, pp126-144.
Grossman, L. S.
1993 The Political Ecology of Banana Exports and Local Food Production in St.
Vincent Eastern Caribbean, Annals of the Association of American
Geographer, Vol. 83, pp347-367.
Lim Chow-Hock
1991 Reclamation and Management of Peatland for Agricultural Development in West Johor, Malaysia, Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography, Vol.22:2, pp124-132.
Neumann, R. P.
1997 Primitive Ideas: Protected Area Buffer Zones and the Politics of Land in Africa, Development and Change, Vol. 28, pp559-582.
Pichón, F. J.
1996 Settler agriculture and the dynamics of resource allocation in frontier environments, Human Ecology, Vol. 24:3, pp341-371.
Rees1, A. R. and Tinker1, P. B. H.
1963 Dry-matter production and nutrient content of plantation oil palms in Nigeria Ⅱ. Nutrient content,
Plant and Soil, Vol. 19:1, pp361-354.
Tan Tek Soon
1902 Chinese Local Trade, Straits Chinese Magazine, Vol. 6:23, pp89-97.
Thio, E.
1967 British Policy Towards Johore, JMBRAS, Vol. 40, pp2-3.
Trocki, C. A.
1976 The Origins of the Kangchu System 1740-1860, Journal of the Malayan
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.49: 2, pp132-155.
Turnull, C. M.
1959 The Johore Gambier and Pepper Trade in the Mid-19th Century, Journal of
the South Seas Society, Vol.15, pp43-55.
Vayda, A. P. and Walters, B. B.
1999 Against Political Ecology, Human Ecology, Vol. 27, pp167-179.
Zimmerer, K. S.
1991 Wetland Production and Small Houesholder Persistence: Agriculture Change in a Highland Peruvian Region, Annals of the Association of
American Geographe, Vol. 81, pp443-463.
參、馬來文部分
一、專書
Caroline Wong May Leng
1992 Sistem Kangcu Di Johor 1844-1917, Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Muzium Malaysia.
M.A. Fawzi Basri
1978 Sejarah Johor moden 1855-1940: satu perbicangan dari pelbagai aspek, Kuala Lumpur: Muzium Negara.
Sahgidon Dirhan
2001 “Pembukaan Dan Pembangunan Awal Pontian”, in Kassim Thukiman, Yahaya Abu Bakar, Mahmud Embong (eds) Menelusuri sejarah tempatan
Johor, Johor : Yayasan Warisan Johor, 361-375.
肆、日文部分
一、專書
內田義彥
1942 《マレ- の農產資源：（1）ココ椰子.油椰子》，東京：東亞研究所。
二、論文∕期刊
永田淳嗣
1994 〈ジョホール・マラッカ海峡沿岸におけるある在地権力者の農園経 営〉，《東南アジア研究》，32：3，頁 357-384。
伍、地圖
FMS&SS
1932 Map of Johre, Singapore: Direction of the Surveyor Generanl F.M.S & S. S.
陸、網路資源
馬來西亞國家農民組織
http://nafas.com.my/v2/（瀏覽日期 2008/10/20）
森那美企業（Sime Darby Berhad）
http://www.simedarby.com/（瀏覽日期 2008/10/19）
森那美種植業公司（Sime Darby Plantation Sdn Bhd）
http://plantation.simedarby.com/ （瀏覽日期 2008/10/19）
國際糧農組織（FAO）
http://faostat.fao.org/（瀏覽日期 2008/10/28、2009/4/22）
國際糧農組織（FAO）
2004 Fertilizer use by crop in Malaysia, Rome: FAO
http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5797e/y5797e00.HTM（瀏覽日期 2009/03/31）