第四章 實務性研究：跨文化溝通能力實務發展現況
第四節 跨文化溝通能力的測驗評量
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本文認為不管是以「語用」為本或「文化」為本單獨討論文化知識或影響溝通 的文化因素，亦或是跨文化溝通的語言技巧等面向，都不足以建構跨文化溝通能力 的終極目標，而是應該以「能力」為本，在討論文化教學的模式內涵前，先從所要 培養的能力宗旨談起，以作為最高指導原則的課程目標，確定要培養什麼樣的能力 後，再去思考，這樣的能力涉及哪些範疇，再根據這些範疇之間的關係、具備的性 質來設定分類教學目標，繼而從教學目標推演相關的語言、文化內涵與認知、情意、
技能的搭配可能，方能行成可操作又緊密連結的跨文化溝通教學模式。
CEFR can do 能力指標，是以多元語文與多元文化能力為宗旨、溝通能力培養 為目標的外語教學大綱，根據前述的 CEFR 跨文化溝通能力概念分析，依照 CEFR 所制定的華語文溝通能力指標是以「能力」為本位，「語用行為」描述為基礎的任 務性描述指標，其溝通能力的架構已考量到語用、社會文化、策略、跨文化意識、
跨文化技能、存在能力（態度、信念、價值觀）等因素，且是各領域專家學者以「溝 通能力」為目標，集思廣益嚴格篩選的指標成果，本文認為可以此為基礎探討「跨 文化溝通能力」與「溝通能力」之間的連結應用與轉化的可能。但受限於指標描述 的特性與跨文化溝通概念本身的特質，並非所有概念都能被明白說明於行為能力的 描述中，故就實務教學與教材設計的角度，本研究分別從指標字面已論及的「外在 教學目標」與指標任務所需的「內在文化因素」分析 A1 到 C2 階段共 385 條華語 文 “can do” 能力指標的「跨文化溝通向度」與「跨文化溝通內涵」，以期能提供將 來華語文跨文化溝通能力指標建構與教學實務應用之參考。
第四節 跨文化溝通能力的測驗評量
現階段以跨文化交際能力為目標的訓練活動，仍相當缺乏，學界認可多元語文 能力對語言學習發展的重要性，但卻少有人提供具建設性、可實施的系列式課堂活 動供華語文教師在課堂上來實施，尤其是跨文化交際能力的訓練方式更是少之又少，
因為這個議題牽涉到兩個最基本的哲學辯證，第一，跨文化交際能力是否可以透過 學校教育來提升？第二，課堂上所訓練的跨文化交際能力與語言能力測驗所測到的 行為表現是否能畫上等號？如果可以，那麼測驗跨文化交際能力的題型能否應用於 教育訓練或課室練習；如果不行，又該如何檢視學生的學習成效？
Gardner（2012）在新出版的多元智能一書中提到，那些易於檢測或較常被討 論的能力不一定代表它非常重要，相對的，一些難以檢測的能力也不代表它不重要。
過去以知識的精熟度、技能的流暢度作為語言測驗的標準，然實際溝通交際中的語 用項目卻大大的被忽視，據此跨文化能力在測驗發展的跛腳情形加上測驗的反撥效 應（washback effect）不只影響了教學的發展，也顯現了外語教學的危機。以下參
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考以「跨文化溝通能力」為測驗目標的相關測驗以探討適合做為外語教學應用與參 考的工具。
一、跨文化能力測驗工具
除了專門的跨文化能力訓練中心，目前可用來測量跨文化能力的測驗工具，至 少已有 53 項，總類繁多，茲整理如下：
表 4-4-1 ICC 測驗評量工具分類彙整表
類型 測驗名稱/來源
綜 合
1. Counseling Inventory: A self- report measure of multicultural competence
Olebe, M., & Koester, J. (1989). Exploring the cross-cultural equivalence of the Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Communication. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13(3), 333-347. Eight scales; validated with 263 university students.2. The Cross-Cultural Assessor
Build your own cultural profile, discover your strengths and challenges and get advice on adapting.http://www.promentor.fi/cca/
3. Cross-Cultural Counseling Inventory
LaFromboise, T. D., Coleman, H. L., & Hernandez, A. (1991). "Development and factor structure of the Cross-Cultural Counseling Inventory--Revised." Professional Psychology:
Research and Practice, 22(5), 380-388. Developed for the counseling milieu.
4. Expatriate Profile (EP)
- Park Li Group. (1996). Expatriate profile workbook.(Second ed.). New York: Author. Expatriate Profile is a computer-based cross- cultural competence self-assessment instrument for international professionals.
5. Fuld & Company, Inc.
Competitive Intelligence (CI)CI Learning Center &Tools http://www.fuld.com/ciStrategiesResources.html
6. The Intercultural Competence Assessment (INCA) Project
A 3 year Leonardo da Vinci Project which aims to develop a framework, diagnostic tool and record of achievement for the assessment of intercultural competence linked to language competence and subject knowledge competence.
Mag. Gabriela Dorn & Mag. Alexandra Cavalieri [email protected] www.lbcnet.at
7. Intercultural Competency Scale
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Elmer, M. I. (1987). Intercultural effectiveness:”Development of an intercultural competency scale.”Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, MI.
Designed with missionaries and foreign students.
8.
The Intercultural CONFLICT Style Inventory
Mitchell R. Hammer, Ph.D. Hammer Consulting Group, 267 Kentlands Blvd. PMB # 705 North Potomac, MD 20878 USA
Phone: 301-330-5589 Fax: 301-926-7450. [email protected] 9.
ITIM: Culture and Management Consultants
ITIM has developed a number of tools, which are unique in their precision and accuracy.
They are all based on the research results of Hofstede and others, which we have translated and adapted to be of practical assistance in your real life work situation. The research results of Hofstede are used as the framework in which all other information can be neatly
analyzed, stored and retrieved.
http://www.itim.org/4ab.html
10. Living and Working Overseas Predeparture Questionnaire
Kealey, D. J. (1988). Explaining and predicting cross-cultural adjustment and effectiveness:
A study of Canadian technical advisors overseas. Hull, Quebec, Canada: Canadian
International Development Agency. Developed for the Canadian International Development Agency.
11. School For International Training(SIT)
YOGA form, a self-assessment tool that aids students in charting their own development. It was developed by Fantini for SIT graduate students.
http://www.sit.edu/news/features/feature_08.html
12. Cultural Agility Self-Assessment (CASA)
Cultural agility is the mega-competency which enables professionals to perform
successfully in cross-cultural situations. Culturally agile professionals succeed in contexts where the successful outcome of their jobs, roles, positions, or tasks depends on dealing with an unfamiliar set of cultural norms—or multiple sets of them.
http://www.culturalagility.com/
13. TCO International
A set of 10 international competencies which describe in a clear professional context what is required by highly effective operators to transfer skills from a domestic to an international context: openness, flexibility, personal autonomy, emotional
resilience, perceptiveness, listening orientationm transparency, cultural knowledge, influencing synergy
http://www.tco-international.com/competencies.asp
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認 知
一 般
1. International Assignment Profile.
Tel. (713) 539-0669特 定
1. Foreign Assignment Success Test (FAST)
- Black, J. S. (1988). Work role transitions: A study of American expatriate managers in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(2), 277-294. Six scales. Validated on 67 American managers in Japan.2. Meridian Resources Associates
GlobeSmart, Meridian's leading edge, web-based tool that provides detailed knowledge on how to conduct business with people from around the world.
http://www.meridianglobal.com/demoregistration.html
3. Team Management Systems
Australia. TMS categories are oriented to the work place and use non- psychologial non-jargony, non hierarchical categories categories were. They also have a lot of cross cultural data to support their model
4. Selection Research Int’l (SRI)
International Assignment Exercise (IAE), Self-assessment tool, Analysis of situational readiness
+1 (314) 567-6900www.sri-2000.com 後
設
1. Cross-Cultural Sensitivity Scale (CCSS)
Pruegger, V. J., & Rogers, T. B. (1993). "Development of a scale to measure cross- cultural sensitivity in the Canadian context." Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 25(4), 615-621. Designed for Canadian context. Normed on undergraduate students.
2. Cultural Competence Self-Assessment Questionnaire (CCSAQ)
Mason, J. L. (1995). Portland State University. Instrument designed to assist service agencies working with children with disabilities and their families in self- evaluation of their cross-cultural competence. Intended for US domestic use.
3. Multicultural Counseling Awareness Scale (MCAS)
J. G. Ponterotto et al. (1991) Developed for the counseling milieu. Emphasizes beliefs.
4. Multicultural Counseling Inventory (MCI)
Sodowsky, G. R., Taffe, R. C., Gutkin, T. B., &Wise, S. L. (1994).
5. PCAT: Peterson Cultural Awareness Test 6. PCSI: Peterson Cultural Style Indicator
Dr. Brooks Peterson, Owner/President of Across Cultures, Inc.
Both of these assessment tools are accessible on-line with a password from Across Cultures, Inc. and are highly reliable and valid instruments for measuring cross-cultural effectiveness and awareness of cultural differences (i.e. individualism versus group oriented cultures).
These tools areeducational and relevant pre- and post- indicators of intercultural learning before/after training and also promote global business success.
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情 意
1. Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI)
Drs. Colleen Kelley & Judith E. Meyers. CCAI is designed to help participants understand the qualities that enhance cross-cultural effectiveness, become self- aware, decide whether to work in a culturally-diverse company and whether to live abroad, and prepare to enter another culture. Measurement: The CCAI measures 4 variables: Emotional Resilience, Flexibility and Openness, Perceptual Acuity, and Personal Autonomy.Intercultural Press 1.800.370.2665
2. GAP Test: Global Awareness Profile
J. Nathan Corbitt The GAP measures how much world knowledge a person has concerning selected items about international politics, economics, geography, culture, etc.
Intercultural Press
Global Interface:
Licensed to administer and interpret the following assessment tools:
3. --Overseas Assignment Inventory (OAI)
A self-response questionnaire thatexamines 14 attitudes and attributes correlated with successful cross-cultural adjustment and performance. Used together with a behavioural interview, the OAI provides essential input to the expatriate selection process and helps expatriates raise their awareness of a number of important adaptation issues.
4. --Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI)
Designed to provide useful and valid information regarding respondents' orientation toward cultural differences and theirreadiness for intercultural training and development. Used in conjunction with training, the IDI is a highly reliable, valid, cross-cultural measure of intercultural sensitivity applicable to a variety of groups of people from different cultural backgrounds.
5. --Trompenaar's Seven Dimensions of Culture and Corporate Culture Profiles: By means of a questionnaire developed by Dr Alfons Trompenaars, individuals receive their own cultural profile on each of seven dimensions of culture that then can be compared with the cultural profile of any other group or individual in an expanding database of over 35,000 managers.
6. --Objective Job Quotient System (OJQ) A computer-assisted tool that provides
cross-culturally appropriate 360° feedback to evaluate and rank employee performance. The OJQ uses multiple raters and ""scaled direct comparisons"", providing greater reliability and validity.
http://www.globalinterface.com.au/how_we_do_it.html
7. Grove and Associates:Cross Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI)
A self-assessment questionnaire that measures an individual's adaptability in four dimensions that may affect his or her ability to have a successful experience in another culture. These are Emotional Resilience, Flexibility/Openness, Perceptual Acuity, and Personal Autonomy.‧ 國
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8. Hogan Assessment System
Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) Personality analysis http://www.hoganassessments.com
9. Insights Discovery System
There are 72 types positioned on the Insights Wheel, which at its simplest divides into four quadrants: Fiery Red© , Sunshine Yellow© , Earth Green© and Cool Blue© . The wheel is divided further into the eight Primary Insights Types. Search for both your colour and type, and learn how different personalities can interact with each
other. http://www.insightsworld.com/
10. Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI)
Uses a 44-item inventory based on the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) to assess the extent of an individual's intercultural development along a continuum that ranges from extreme ethnocentrism to what Bennett calls "ethnorelativism."
Ethnorelativism is the ability to function at a high level of relational and social involvement in a non-native culture. Developed by Drs. M.J. Bennett & M. Hammer. The IDI is a statistically reliable, valid measure of intercultural sensitivty. The IDI was constructed and tested over a 3-year time period by Mitch Hammer at American University and was piloted successfully by Milton Bennett in both corporate and educational settings. The IDI
instrument and IDI analysis services are available through ICI only to those people who have completed a qualifying seminar. The 3-day seminars prepare people to explain and implement the IDI in corporate, academic, and other organizational settings.
+1 (503) 297-4622http://www.intercultural.org
11. Intcultural Orientation Resources (IOR)
Predictive Index (PI), Personality analysis, Voluntary checklist http:/www.iorworld.com
12. Intercultural Readiness Check (IRC
, © Intercultural Business Improvement) The IRC is an ideal tool for assessing participants’intercultural skills in the areas ofintercultural sensitivity, communication, leadership and management of uncertainty. Clients can fill in the IRC online to prepare for an assignment, a project or a training. IRC licensees have full online support and client management tools. Visit our site for more information about the IRC and the next licensing course.
http://www.ibinet.nl
13. Intercultural Sensitivity Inventory (ICSI)
Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (1992). "The measurement of intercultural sensitivity using the concepts of individualism and collectivism." International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16(4), 413-436. Validated with 46 undergraduate and 93 graduate students.
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Focuses on sensitivity to individualism versus collectivism differences.
14. Intercultural Sensitivity Survey
Towers, K. L. (1991). Intercultural sensitivity survey: Construction and initial
validation. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Iowa. Validated with students.
15. Personal Orientation Inventory (POI)
Uhes, M. J., & Shybut, J. (1971). "Personal orientation inventory as a predictor of success in Peace Corps training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 55(5), 498-499. Validated with 92 Peace Corps trainees.
Personal Cultural Perspective Profile (PCPP) - Ramsey, M. (1994). Use of a Personal Cultural Perspective Profile (PCPP) in developing counselor multicultural competence. International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 17(4), 283-290. Developed for the counseling milieu. 14 scales.
16. Prospector
Spreitzer, G. M., McCall, M. W., & Mahoney, J. D. (1997). Early identification of international executive potential.Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(1), 6-29.
17. Teaching Tolerance
bias test and tips.http://www.tolerance.org/hidden_bias/index.html
18. Test of Intercultural Sensitivity (TICS)
David E. Weldon, D. E. Carlston, A. K. Rissman, L. Slobodin, Harry C. Triandis (1975) Tucker International www.tuckerintl.com
19. International Candidate Evaluation (ICE)
. Personality analysis. Optional 360° feedback.
20. The OAI
(Overseas Assignment Inventory)- a validated assessment which predicts expatriate candidates potential for success if sent on an international assignment. Dr. Michael Tucker is the author of the OAI. Available on-line.
21. The ICE
(International Candidate Evaluation) - a validated assessment which takes the expatriate selection process to a higher level by involving the candidates supervisor. Available on-line.
22. The IMA
(International Mobility Assessment) - an interactive, on-line, self- assessment tool designed to help employees assess their readiness and mobility for an international assignment. Available on-line.
23. The EED
(Evaluation of Expatriate Development) and the SEED(Supervisory Evaluation of Expatriate Development) - A safety net for existing expatriates. The EED and SEED are used to evaluate expatriate adjustment to living and working in the country of assignment. Their results are incorporated into an Expatriate Evaluation and Development Guide which is given to the expatriate to provide feedback and use as a tool to enhance their ongoing international
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24. Windham International
Windham International Cultural Model Self-assessment tool Counselor analysis +1 (212) 647-0555
www.windhamworld.com
25. Window on the World
Expatriate Profile Inventory (EPS) Self-selection tool; Personality analysis +1 (612) 338-3690
www.windowontheworldinc.com 技
能
1. Counseling Inventory: A self-report measure of multicultural competencies
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41(2), 137-148. Developed for the counseling milieu.Emphasizes behaviors. Four factors. Large sample.
2. The Cultural Orientations Indicator® (COI® )
The Cultural Orientations Indicator® (COI)—the centerpiece of the Cultural
Navigator® —is a web-based, self-reporting tool designed to foster self-awareness and other-awareness so users can effectively communicate and collaborate in a global team environment. The COI assessment and report is divided into three dimensions:Interaction Style,Thinking Style,Sense of SelThe assessment of an individual’s work style and cultural preferences is delivered with a summary report that provides recommendations and suggests relevant resources for building effective skills and cultural agility. The COI has been
psychometrically validated for reliable results, and is available in over 10 languages.The COI® provides respondents with a personal cultural profile based on ten dimensions that have particular application in the business world. The understanding gained from the personal profile, which is based on TMC’s Cultural Orientations Model™ (COM™), can be applied to the development of specific business, management, sales, marketing, negotiation and leadership skills, among others, when applied in multicultural situations. A validated report is available upon request.http://www.tmcorp.com
3. The Culture in the Workplace Questionnaire™
is derived from the work of G.Hofstede, and enables you to learn your own cultural profile and how that might compare to others. http://www.itapintl.com/ITAPCWQuestionnaire.htm4. Educoas, Editorial February 2002
Maintains the premise that the Internet holds great promise as a tool to foster intercultural communication to create responses to development needs in the Hemisphere.
http://www.educoas.org/eng/editorial_feb.asp
5. The Global Team Process Questionnaire™ (GTPQ),
a proprietary instrument developed by ITAP International, helps global teams improve their effectiveness and productivity. http://www.itapintl.com/gtpq.htm‧ 國
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6. Nipporica Associates
Use: Models (Communicating Across Difference, Four Phase Model for Leveraging
Difference, Diverge/Converge Method of Decision Making)Tools (Common Ground, Group Norms, Assessment and Diagnostic Tools, Cultural Pinwheels) Skills (Paraphrasing,
Remaining Objective and Involved, Red Flags, Calling Behavior), andSimulation (Ecotonos, Redundancia, Barnga) to develop their abilities to make decisions and solve problems using the expertise and insight of all concerned with the issue at hand.
http://www.nipporica.com/services.htm
7. Prudential Intercultural
Overseas Assignment Inventory (OAI), Self-assessment tool, Behavioral analysis, Long Track Record
+1-800-257-4092www.oaionline.com、www.prudential.com/prm 整理自：SIETAR - The Society for Intercultural Education,Training and Research.
http://www.sietar-europa.org/SIETARproject/Assessments&instruments.html#Topic26（瀏覽日期：
2014.04.01）
從上述測驗工具的整理可以發現，目前跨文化能力方面的測驗工具，是以情意
從上述測驗工具的整理可以發現，目前跨文化能力方面的測驗工具，是以情意