An Empirical Study of Training and Development, Psychological Capital, Employee Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment in a Public Organization: Evidence from The Gambia Revenue Authority

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(1)An Empirical Study of Training and Development, Psychological Capital, Employee Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment in a Public Organization: Evidence from The Gambia Revenue Authority. By Awa Sillah. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph. D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2015. I.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT "At times, our own light goes out and is rekindled by a spark from another person. Each of us has cause to think with deep gratitude of those who have lighted the flame within us." Albert Schweitzer It is with humble but grateful heart I gave thanks and praises to Allah SWT for giving me the health, strength, perseverance, and determination to complete this thesis and for blessing me with the support of exceptional individuals. There are many individuals who all played significant roles in the development and ultimate completion of this thesis. First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, mentor, and IHRD mom Professor Vera Wei-Wen Chang for the continuous support of my study and related research, for her patience, motivation, love, and immense knowledge. She provided me with the perfect balance of mentoring and coaching to complete this journey. Her guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my graduate study. I am also profoundly grateful for the invaluable input of my committee members. Each committee member has uniquely contributed to the success of this research. I would like to thank Dr. Tsai and Dr Pai-po Lee for their direction in helping me to understand human resource development in public organizations. I am also grateful for their sustained encouragement, insightful discussions and excellent guidance. I am particularly grateful to all IHRD professors, for the help they provided through their expertise and constructive advice. My profound gratitude and great appreciation to Dr. Tony Shih, Dr Rosa Yeh, Dr Jane Lin, Dr Steven Lai, and Professor Larry Miller who were more than generous with their time, and gave me useful knowledge and unwavering support throughout my IHRD life. Most of all, I am deeply grateful for the tireless efforts of the IHRD staff and ICDF program managers, Kate, Tracy and Jessica, thank you for the outstanding dedication to our needs. I would like to thank International Corporation and Development Fund (ICDF) for the scholarship; I could not have completed this journey without them. I am also deeply appreciative of all the motivation and encouragement I received from my parent, to my Father Baba Matarr Sillah, who have given me with world and II.

(3) now, I want to give back to the world. To my Mama, Adama Susso, who never said I could not do or be someone. If I could be half of the woman she is today, I would be ecstatic. Completing this education journey is a true blessing. This success has not been achieved in isolation, and I am grateful to my late mother, Kumba Kanteh who provided prayers, support, and contribution of time, resources and guidance during my academic journey. She was one of the few people who have always been there for me through everything, and I know she was so proud of me to reach this day. May her beautiful soul rest in eternal peace. Life is somehow meaningless if what one does goes without positive effects on lives of others. Again, I am grateful to my phenomenal husband, Darling Illo Jallow, and In-laws who knew the timely words of affirmation and motivation that kept me moving forward. Their support throughout this journey was priceless and will always be recalled. To my sisters and brothers words cannot describe how much I love and appreciate them. My Gratitude goes to my amazing twin sister; Adama Sillah, my Khadijahs, and friend Fatou Bittaye, for their unwavering support in this endeavor. I would like to extend a warm appreciation to relatives and comrades who have been encouraging along the way and I will always be indebted for their unconditional love they have given me throughout my entire academic career. I am also immensely thankful to my fellow ‗‗IHRDers‘‘ and Classmates for the stimulating discussions, for the times we spent working together, and for all the fun we have had in the last two years. They all made this journey remarkable. Special thanks to my incredible Helene Konkobo, my Chang family members (Rosy, Julie and Fryda), Jeanine, Mariam, Fatou, Yankuba and Saikou Sanneh for the love, support, and peer reviews. Finally, this journey was enhanced by the contributions of The Gambia Revenue Authority (GRA). I would like to proudly acknowledge the support of the staff for their willingness to participate in my research. I owe a special thank you to Mr Essa Jallow, GRA Human Resource Department, and Tax Audit Department for their support all through the journey.. May Allah bless you all!!. III.

(4) DEDICATION I want to dedicate this thesis to the loving memory of my dear mother Nanding Kumba Kanteh who instilled the values of diligence, persistence, and the importance of helping others improve their lives. I am also dedicating this thesis to my Professor, Wei-Wen Chang, my Sillah, and Jallow family. I finally dedicate this success to GRA and all Employers, who devote their energies toward the development of their Human Resources in order to attained and achieved positive work behaviors and organizational objectives.. IV.

(5) ABSTRACT A well-organised human resource development programme is a critical strategy for public organizations, as in the coming years human capital will increasingly play a significant role in organizational development. Notwithstanding, the human resource commitment and turnover is one of the biggest concerns of organizations especially in the 21st century. This study was conducted in The Gambia to explore strategies that public organizations could consider for increasing employees‘ commitment behavior in order to achieve national development mandates. Thus, this study departing from the emphasis in prior behavioral research developed a framework of organizational commitment that incorporates training and development, employee job satisfaction and psychological capital. The analyses of the data collected from 257 employees of The Gambia Revenue Authority indicated that training and development and organizational commitment are associated positively, and that, employee job satisfaction and psychological capital partially mediates the relationship. This research used a quantitative research paradigm, and prior to the data collection, the study adopted validated measurement instruments from previous researchers who have conducted studies on these constructs. Thus, to confirm their suitability, the instruments have gone through the process of face validity, pilot study and construct reliability. The data was analyzed using SPSS 22 and Amos to compute descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis, correlations, linear and multiple regressions. Thus, this study may lead to a better understanding as regards to how human resource development practitioners can design policies that may enhance organizational commitment behaviors in public enterprises. Based on the results of this study, practical and theoretical implications were discussed.. Keywords: training and development, psychological capital, employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment, Human Resource Development, Gambia Revenue Authority. I.

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... I TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... II LISTS OF TABLES ............................................................................................IV LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. V CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 Research Background ............................................................................................................. 1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................. 4 Research Purposes .................................................................................................................. 6 Research Questions ................................................................................................................ 7 Research Significance ............................................................................................................ 7 Delimitations .......................................................................................................................... 9 Definitions of Terms .............................................................................................................. 9. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................... 11 Training and Development ................................................................................................... 11 Psychological Capital ........................................................................................................... 15 Organizational Commitment ................................................................................................ 17 Employee Job Satisfaction ................................................................................................... 22 Relationship between the Variables ..................................................................................... 26 Overview of Training and Development of the Gambia Revenue Authority ...................... 35. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS ......................................................... 37 Research Framework ............................................................................................................ 37 Research Procedure .............................................................................................................. 38 Research Instrument ............................................................................................................. 41 Reliability and Validity of the Instrument............................................................................ 45 Sample for the Study: The Gambia Revenue Authority ...................................................... 46 Method of Data Analysis...................................................................................................... 48 Pilot Study ............................................................................................................................ 50. CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................ 53 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................ 53 Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results ................................................................................. 63 Hypothesis Tests .................................................................................................................. 67. II.

(7) The Relationship between the Variables .............................................................................. 71 Discussions of the Findings ................................................................................................. 80 Demographics Variables Relationship with Study Variables .............................................. 85. CHAPTER V CONLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ................................... 87 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 87 Theoretical and Practical Implications ................................................................................. 89 Research Recommendations ................................................................................................ 99 Limitations and Future Research........................................................................................ 102 Final Considerations ........................................................................................................... 104. REFERENCE .................................................................................................... 105 APENDIX A: QUESTIONAIRE ...................................................................... 119 APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRES ITEMS CODING ................................. 125. III.

(8) LISTS OF TABLES Table 2.1 Definitions of Organizational Commitment…………….……………………….18 Table 2.2 Organizational Commitment Model……………………….…………………….21 Table 2.3 Definitions of Job Satisfaction...……………………..……….…………………….23 Table 2.4 Five facet of Hackman job description model…………….………..…………….26 Table 3.1 Research Hypotheses……………………………………….…………………….38 Table 3.2 Established Reliability of Variables……………………….….……….………….44 Table 3.3 Reliability Methods for this Research……..……………………………………..45 Table 3.4 Validity Methods for this Research………..……………………………………..45 Table 3.5 Reliability of variables…...…………….…………………………………………52 Table 4.1 Demographics Characteristics of the Sample…………………………………….54 Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics for Training and Development …………………….…....56 Table 4.3 Descriptive Statistics for Organizational Commitment…………………………......58 Table 4.4 Descriptive Statistics for Employee Job Satisfaction ……………………………60 Table 4.5 Descriptive Statistics for Psychological Capital…….……………..…………….62 Table 4.6 Criteria for Evaluating CFA Results.……………………………………………..63 Table 4.7 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Training and Development……………..…….64 Table 4.8 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Organizational Commitment………….…….. 64 Table 4.9 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Psychological Capital…….. ………….……...65 Table 4.10 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Employee Job Satisfaction ………….…….....66 Table 4.11 Correlation Table………………….……………………..…………………...….70 Table 4.12 Multiple Regressions Analysis summaries of Training and Development and Employee Job Satisfaction……………………………………………………………....71 Table 4.13 Multiple Regressions Analysis summaries of Training and Development and Psychological Capital ……………………….………….……………………………....73 Table 4.14 Linear Regression Analysis summaries of Training and Development and Organizational Commitment ………………………………………………...………….74 Table 4.15 Results for Employee Job Satisfaction Mediation on Training and Organisational Commitment Relationship……………..………………………….………....76 Table 4.16 Results for Psychological Capital Mediation on Training and Organisational Commitment Relationship…………………………………………………...77 Table 4.17 Summary of Analysis Results…………………..……………………………….79. IV.

(9) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Psychological Capital Model………………………………………………...…..17 Figure 2.2 Hackman and Olham‘s Job Satifaction characteristics model…………………...25 Figure 3.1 Research Framework….……………………………………………………........37 Figure 3.2 Research Procedure ………..…………………………………………………….40. V.

(10) “Human resources are like natural resources; they're often buried deep...You have to create the circumstances where they show themselves.” ― Ken Robinson. VI.

(11) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter provide an overall motivation for conducting this research. It gives an insight of the study background, purposes, the questions that frames the investigation and the significances of the research. The theoretical framework upon which the researcher addresses the research questions was discussed and thereafter, delimitations were also stated. Finally, the key terms were defined in order to provide a comprehensive focus of this entire study.. Research Background Organizations are known to exist and function in dynamic environments. This circumstance compels organizations to adopt innovative measures to meet the changing needs of the time and to bridge the gaps between actual and desired targets (Ozoya, 2009; Porras & Silvers, 1991; Ndulue, 2012). Through this process, human resources play a significant role in achieving organizational goals. Additionally, they have become the most significant asset, as the public organizations shifted from traditional government focus to a new public service oriented enterprise aims at the 3Es–economy, efficiency and effectiveness. In this transition, the development of human capital becomes the core, as well as the differentiator for public organizations (Camilli, 2004). As such, in public enterprises the critical resources are not only the revenue provided to government, but also ‗‗the employees whom the organization hires and must retain‘‘ (Barber & Strack, 2005, p.83). Therefore, the need for public organizations to create conditions where employees would be highly committed is critical to achieving its goals. In turn, this can increase employee commitment, reduces turnover intention and actual turnover. In recent years, there have been inexplicable turnovers in most public enterprises in SubSaharan Africa, a trend which started around the 1960s, and it became more of a problem in the 21st Century (Kiragu, 1998). However, with organizations witnessing remarkable changes over time, many public enterprises in developing countries have come under pressure to become more proactive in improving employees‘ skills, so as to provide high quality service to the public, increase commitment and contribute immensely to national development. In this regard, public enterprises are subjected to the introduction of programs for greater organizational commitment in order to steer genuine development in their respective communities and The Gambia is not an exception (Dahida, 2013) In The Gambia, anecdotal evidences have shown that, the society expects public enterprises to become more citizen focused, and to operate in a more business-like manner; 1.

(12) forcing public sector organizations to increase accountability, quality, and effectiveness in service delivery for greater public trust and confidence. This is coupled with other expectations of meeting government and other stakeholders‘ performance targets. Many public and private sectors around the world are faced with similar situations and the impact of economic crisis and globalization (Haufler, 2013). Consequently, the concern of how to increase employees‘ commitment in order to meet public demands, and maintain high performance has emerged. Additionally, according to Crook,(2010) the key problems of some African public services remain those of over or understaffing and lack of organizational commitment. International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2015) recent report posits that that ‗‗times are tough in most West Africa countries and many economies… Investors are pulling money out of riskier spots and growth forecasts decline especially in The Gambia, that suffered from all these trends, a harbinger of things to come (p.1)‘‘. If this trend continues it will affect revenue collected from business for national growth. Hence, these situations reiterate the need for a greater public service commitment to achieve organizational objectives. However, many raise questions concerning how the public sector employees can survive such transformation, whether they are professionally competent to work against the pressures in order to deal with the increasing demands. With these questions into consideration, this study found out some feasible recommendations and important strategies to increase organizational commitment in public organizations in The Gambia Moreover, organizational commitment is a construct that has been widely studied and found to be an unswerving predictor of employee turnover and intention to leave (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Thus, the need for factors that predict organizational commitment has become critical and the demand for a greater understanding of this organizational phenomenon increases daily. The major. drive behind this continuous recognition of organizational. commitment among human resource researchers for over three decades is that it is often seen as a key to‗‗organizational success‘‘(Benkhoff, 1997b). Against this backdrop, organizational commitment has emerged as a promising area of research within the study of organizational psychology and industries recently (Adebayo, 2006; Meyer & Allen, 1997). This is in part due to the vast number of studies that have relationships with commitment, attitudes and behaviours (Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974). Existing theoretical studies showed that commitment has direct implications on individuals and an overall on the organizations (Allen & Meyer, 1990.). Ultimately, to achieve this, it is generally associated with motivation, management support, and positive organizational climate. Thus, for public organizations,. 2.

(13) implementing strategies that increase employees‘ commitment could be helpful in reducing the intention to leave. Furthermore, many researchers posit that for firms to achieve organizational goals investing in the human resource base is critical as it is fundamentally important to human capital development (Wesley, 1999). In this regard, Saks (1996) reported that, the greater the amount of development employees experience, the more they possessed ―positive job attitudes, ability to cope, and... lower intentions to quit‖ (p.449). Thus, greater skills and abilities were shown to lead to better performance and, in the process, leads to better attitudes about the job (Miller & Jablin, 1991). Besides, ―employees may view an effective training experience as an indication that the enterprise is willing to invest in them and cares about their career development; thus training may enhance their commitment‖(Tannenbaum et al., 1991, p.760). In addition, organizations strategies to minimise lack of commitment should come with more proactive measures and initiatives to increase action oriented employees. Thus without any interventions or programs for employee development, their mission for contributing to national development might not be achieved. Likewise, according to Laing (2009), factors determining employee organizational commitment include the degree of change in macro environment, internal change, employee job satisfaction, age, availability of knowledge, skills and extent to which the organization sees training as a motivating factor for the development of both the employees and attainment of the organizations‘ performance targets. Therefore, to achieve desirable work behaviours, training the human resources in consonance with immediate and remote operational environment is imperative. Most important among the response options to environmental subtleties is the organization‘s focus on developing and improving the human side of the enterprise. As training is considered an indispensable human resource functions as it is the wire that improves the asset that moves the organization to the direction of meeting its objectives (Ozoya, 2009). With regards to this, the human capacity has become a critical index to both public and private enterprises; the development of such capacities has become an important facet in designing the strategic direction of organizations (Tim & Brinkerhoff, 2008). Training also ensures that organizational members possess the knowledge and skills they need to perform their jobs effectively, take on new responsibilities, and adapt to changing conditions. Studies found that an organization developing the knowledge, skills and abilities of employees, is viewed as an investment and can contribute to the formation of position trust. Considering training and. 3.

(14) development is believed to be discretionary and it is highly valued (Gavino, Wayne, & Erdogan, 2012). Furthermore, employee job satisfaction has been found to help clarify the relationship between human resource management practices with organizational commitment. Research by Allen , Shore, and Griffeth (2003) confirmed this result and found that human resource practices were more strongly correlated with job satisfaction than with organizational commitment, suggesting that human resource practices increase job satisfaction and that ―leads to affective attachment to the organization‖ (Allen et al., 2003, p.114). Moreover, review of literatures also indicates that few researchers (Chambel & Sobral, 2011, Gavino et al., 2012) have looked at the mediating impact of job satisfaction on the relationship between training and development and organizational commitment. Also, according to the researcher‘s knowledge, no study investigated psychological capital (PsyCap) as a mediator between the two variables in public organizations.. Problem Statement This section explores and presented the problem found in research and in practice:. Problem of Research Training and development impact on organizational commitment has been studied in some industries in recent years and the outcomes of the researches have provided some indication to suggest that training and development has effects on organizational commitment (Ahmad & Bakar, 2003; Bartlett & Kang, 2004). However, empirical studies of the relationship are in its primary phases and the exact nature of the relationship is still indistinct. (Bartlett, 2001; Conway & Monks, 2009). In addition, Fornes, Rocco, and Wollard (2008) posits that there is a need to conduct human resource development research in understanding how to trigger employee commitment behaviour since there is a gap which little is known.. Though, Human Resource Development (HRD) practices have been establish to be correlated to organizational commitment (Conway & Monks, 2009; Kinicki, Carson, & Bohlander, 1992), some scholars have recommended that the association is not direct. Research conducted by Meyer and Smith (2000) found that employee job satisfaction played an important role in mediating the link between human resource management (HRM) practices and commitment. The researcher noted from a theoretical perspective that understanding mediating mechanisms puts researchers ―in a better position to explain why. 4.

(15) known relations exist and to search more systematically for influencing factors in future research‖ (Meyer et al., 2002, p.39). However, a ―gap… exists in understanding which mediator play a role in the relationship between HR practices and employee behaviours that benefit the organization‖ (Gavino et al., 2012, p.667). In addition, there is limited research on PsyCap as a mediating variable and its influence on the link between commitment and other factors. Furthermore, despite the extensive studies and interest on PsyCap, training and development and organizational commitment, there is still very little research done in developing countries (Meyer et al., 2002). Given the growing significant of public enterprises in facilitating economic advancement, there is a need to extend our understanding of the factors that enhance commitment. However, in The Gambia, although there have been few researches on capacity building, the mediating role of employee job satisfaction and PsyCap on the relationship between training and organizational commitment was not looked at before. This reiterates the fact that very little empirical research has been conducted and this gap created the need for this empirical study to be conducted in The Gambia.. Problem of Practice The environment of public organizations has undergone rapid transformation especially through the structural adjustment program of the International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2003), globalization and economic crises. In the centre of these changes, challenges occur. This has created pressure on many public firms to come with proactive measures to face these challenges, through the development of the human resource. Therefore, training for all levels of public enterprise employees is critical to developing expertise, though the type of skill-building needed (e.g., tax administration, public sector administration, public sector reform programs etc.) may vary. Without continuous learning for public servants, the level of professionalism needed for public satisfaction, economic growth and advancement could be negatively impacted (Richard, & Daniel, 2001). According, to Hartz (2002), ―there is absolutely nothing more important for the future well-being of employees and economic growth than a highly developed, motivated and renewable intellectual capital base.‖ (p.6). Thus, with this critical need for highly committed and skilled workers, taxpayers satisfaction and employees retention can become a serious issue for public organizations to tackle when business are closing and employee turnover keeps increasing (Kiragu, 1998).. 5.

(16) In addition, to the financial impacts of personnel loss, lack of organizational commitment can also be disruptive to public organizations because, along with individuals departing from the organization, the public might be dissatisfy with the work behaviour of employees in the public enterprises. This when not address might leads to closure of some businesses and affect economic growth of the country. Thus, one way the organizations can boost performance is by increasing organizational commitment of employees as it positively associated with desirable work behaviours (i.e., attendance, job performance) (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). While investments in training and providing a supportive work environment strengthen commitment, it also develop PsyCap, as it is regarded as an expression of the organization‘s support to the employees (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchinson, & Sowa, 1986). Accordingly, significant positive revenue growth is forecasted for public organizations in The Gambia (Gambia. Dept. of State for Finance, & Economic Affairs, 2007; IMF, 2013), nonetheless, anecdotal evidences have shown that the commitment of public servant is a critical concern. The problems of practice addressed in this study are: understanding factors that contribute to creating a supportive work environment and organisational commitment in public enterprises. Thus, this research identifies the contributions and impact of human resource practices on commitment. These recommendations can be used by HRD practitioners and policy makers to decide how to invest resources allocated to human resources for a better performance.. Research Purposes Based on the research background and motivation, this empirical study aims to investigate the relationships between training and development, employee job satisfaction, PsyCap and organizational commitment, and derived related theoretical and practical implications. The underlying factors may empower The Gambia Revenue Authority‘s HR unit and identify factors important for greater organizational commitment. The exploration of current GRA employees‘ development initiatives might contribute towards an understanding of how training improves desirable work behaviour. Thus, these relationships might provide strong arguments for more and better HRD programs delivery in public organizations. In addition, the evaluation might not only create a holistic view of the variables, but may also assist in fostering a sense of obligation to stay commited among employees in public organizations.. 6.

(17) The purpose of this research therefore, was to examine employees‘ perception of training impact on organizational commitment in GRA. Thus, these objectives are herein outlined as the purposes of the study: . Investigate the effect of training and development on employee job satisfaction and psychological capital of the Gambia Revenue Authority.. . Examine the mediating role of psychological capital and employee job satisfaction on training and development – organizational commitment relationship of the Gambia Revenue Authority. . Examine the impact training and development have on employees organizational commitment of the Gambia Revenue Authority. Research Questions According to the research purposes derived from the background and motivation of the study, three research questions needed to be answered and are formulated as follows; 1. Does training and development (training support from colleagues, management training support, motivation of training, and training benefit) have a significant relationship with employee job satisfaction and psychological capital in the Gambia Revenue Authority? 2. Whether employee job satisfaction and psychological capital play a role as mediators in the training and development and organizational commitment relationship in the Gambia Revenue Authority? 3. Does training and development have a significant relationship with organizational commitment in the Gambia Revenue Authority?. Research Significance This study makes important contributions to training and development, employee job satisfaction, PsyCap, and organizational commitment literatures in public organizations both in theory and in practice. While research on training and organizational commitment has been conducted in private organizations/corporations (Swerdlow,. & Cummings, 2000;. Tannenbaum, Mathieu, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 1991), there is little information and empirical studies found in public enterprises. Consequently, researchers like Camilleri (2006) have called for additional studies of what can enhance commitment in public organizations. Most studies of training are considered as a one-dimensional construct and outcomes to public sectors training and development programs are rarely taken into account. Ismail, Md 7.

(18) Nor, and Marjani (2009) pointed out that when addressing training and development, it is fundamental to know how training leads to organizational development. Taking into account training conducted by the organizations can boost organizational commitment which is particularly important in achieving performance targets. However, many of the studies conducted in public organizations to date are mainly theoretical. This study extends on the training and organizational commitment literature as it provides support for the type of desired behaviour and interventions that are essential for public enterprise‘s success. Furthermore, the results of this study may be of interest to organizations that seek to improve employee job satisfaction and PsyCap Thus, employee job satisfaction has become crucial as it is often seen as a key construct that influences behaviour for retention. Citing from Spector (1997),‗‗it is vital for organizations to develop innovative capacities that increase employees‘ job satisfaction as they allow employees to respond to the needs of the internal or external environment, and respond swiftly to changing demographics‘‘ (p. 24). Likewise, training and development has been claimed to be essential for PsyCap and some studies have provided substantial evidence on these relationships. However, research with empirical evidence on PsyCap that is crucial to organizational commitment is relatively scarce. Thus, an important contribution of this research is represented by the role of PsyCap and employee job satisfaction on the relationship between training and organizational commitment Moreover, there is dearth of theoretical and empirical studies in public organizations in The Gambia. Therefore, the implications of this study have the potential of unlocking economic value from the GRA‘s training programs as it attempts to identify the contextual factors that enhance employees‘ commitment behaviours. In addition, the management of GRA may also find the results of this study of practical benefit, as it provides practical recommendations for greater commitment, in order to successfully achieve organizational goals. Given that organizations successes depends mainly on the ability to capitalize on the value of employees. As a result, various organizations are developing and implementing training and development programs to manage and leverage their human capital (Kankanhalli, Tan, & Wei, 2005). ). Thus, the outcomes of this study laid a foundation for future researchers interested in understanding these variables in public organizations in Africa. Finally, the results may contribute to raise awareness among public enterprises in The Gambia about the importance of training and development, employee job Satisfaction, PsyCap to the employees and to the organizations at large. 8.

(19) Delimitations The researcher places some delimitation in order to manage the scope of the study. First, it is delimitated to The Gambia and to one public enterprise GRA. Furthermore, the research is also delimitated to GRA employees, specifically, those who have undergone training. Drawing from the delimitations, since the study is delimited to Gambia this means that it is culturally bound, therefore, the results cannot be generalized to other organizations. In addition, the research participants consisted only of employees working full time. Since people have different perceptions of the organizations they belong to and respond differently to their organization‘s environment, the findings of this study can be context specific and may not be applicable to members of other groups of organizations (i.e part-time employees, Interns or experts from International Monetary Fund, etc.).. Definitions of Terms In this section, the researcher provides both the theoretical and operational definitions of the variables in this research. The operational definitions outline how the variables are measured and theoretical definition outline the concept of the constructs. The four main constructs investigated in this study include training and development, employee job satisfaction, Psychological Capital, and organisational commitment as described below:. Training and Development Training is defined as a learning activity directed towards the acquisition of specific knowledge and skills for the purpose of an occupation or task (Cole, 2004). In other words, it is the plan and systematic approach to employee learning leading to the acquisition of new knowledge or skills for the purposes of personal growths (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). This study looks at training and development as support and benefits employee received to developed their knowledge, skills and ability that leads to job satisfaction, high PsyCap, and organizational commitment. An 18 scale items is used to measure training and development shown in table 4.2 of this text. This scale is formally adapted from Barlett (2011), but the different dimensions scale are developed by (Tharenou & Conroy.,1994; Noe & Schmitt., 1986; Noe & Wilk, 1993). 9.

(20) Psychological Capital Psychological Capital is defined as ‗‗the positive and developmental state of an individual as characterized by high self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resiliency. It is concerned with individuals‘ strength, perceptions, attitude towards work, and general outlook of life‘‘ (Luthans, 2007 p.1). A 24-item scale from Luthans (2005) research is used to measure PsyCap. This is shown in Table 4.5. Organizational Commitment Organizational Commitment is referred to as the degree of commitment and loyalty that employees exhibit toward employers. It is also known as the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Organizational commitment therefore, is assessed using the 24-item developed by Allen and Meyer (1990). This measure includes three dimensions of organizational commitment– affective, continuance, and normative commitment. Employee Job Satisfaction Employee Job Satisfaction refers to the positive feelings employees have for their work in relation to previous, current experiences or available alternatives (Balzer, 2000). The researcher measured employee job satisfaction as a dependent and a mediating variable. The Hackman 15 item job design instrument was adapted to measure employee job satisfaction which includes satisfaction with skill variety, task significant, task identity, autonomy and feedback of Results. 10.

(21) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW The increasing importance of organization commitment in public organizations has increased the need to identify factors that increase commitment and reduce turnover intention. In this chapter, the researcher provides a review of previous literature relevant to this research and the relationship between the variables. Training and development, PsyCap, employee job satisfaction, and organizational commitment are conceptualized; their dimensions and empirical studies also reviewed. The final phase provides an overview of The Gambia Revenue Authority‘s training and development programs.. Training and Development The disorder in current organizational environment has called for a responsive and innovative workforce. One of the important ways of attaining organizational commitment is the creation of conditions for the rapid acquisition of new knowledge and skills (Brown, Boyle, & Boyle, 2002). Although this may be achieved in an ad hoc fashion with people learning from each other or simply through experience, a key factor is the quality of planned, training and development in organizations. Recently, training and development gain prominence among researchers and many definitions and interpretations can be found within the HRD literatures which are presented below.. Definitions of Training and Development Training and development as suggested by Van Wart et al. (1993), is an application driven that aims to impart skills that are useful immediately in particular situations. McLagan (1989) defined training and development as identifying, assuring and helping to develop key competencies that enable individuals to perform current or future jobs (cited in Wan, 2007). Swanson and Holton (2001) posits that training and development are a process of systematically developing ―work-related knowledge‖ and ―expertise‖ in employees for improving job assignments. Moreover, Akdere (2003) defined training and development practices as parameters for increasing the employees' level of self-awareness and skills to fulfil their tasks well. Wexley and Latham (1991) put more emphasis on training and term it as a planned endeavor to facilitate the learning of ―job-related behaviour‖ on the part of an organization‘s employees. They defined job-related behaviour as any knowledge and expertise acquired by an individual that can be related to organizational objectives. As a result, training has been considered as a systematic process by different practitioners in order to improve individual and organizational job performances 11.

(22) There is a common philosophy underlying Human Resource Development (HRD) which contradicts with the organizational context in which training and development interventions are applied. These common philosophies usually try to characterize the workplace in terms of being like a "family". Therefore, at its simplest, management in a fatherly fashion look after the workforce and know what's best for them. Like children in families, workers are expected to display loyalty and a willingness to fall (Sinclair & Collins, 1992). As job security for employees now a days becoming a challenge which always raises question of employee commitment, alternatively, organizations may give opportunities for internal rotation, gradual growth, improved skills and abilities, as well as individual and professional development (employee or career development opportunities; this in return, according to Tansky and Cohen (2001), organizations may expect certain employee attitudes, including commitment which is the strength of an individual‘s identification with and involvement in a particular organization (Mowday, Porter & Steers, 1982). However, scholars have argued that organizational employee training and development initiatives are necessary interventions to ensuring employee morale and satisfaction (Jackson & Vitberg, 1987). Since individual employees put their career into consideration in an organization, it is possible that their perceptions of career prospects in the organization for example, continual growth through training and development opportunities will have an effect on organizational commitment (Jans, 1989). In fact, the new psychological contract indicates that the employees bring in a good performance while continuously learning and adapting, which in exchange the organization gives developmental relationships, and good rewards and other necessary compensation (Hall & Mirvis, 1996). The authors further argued that greater understanding of how to provide work environments friendly to not only training and development but also provide an atmosphere that encourages managers to care for their employees. The relationships involved in employee training and development transactions can be considered exchanges. Blau (1964) categorized two types of exchanges: economic exchanges and social exchanges. The latter (social exchange) is based on implicit obligations and trust. Its value of the exchange is determined by the identities of the two parties involve. Both parties have their expectations about the behavior of the other party which are not necessarily based on timing or the specifics of what each party must render. If the benefit is ripped by both parties, either of them will know whether the expectations of the other have been fully met or not. Social exchanges involved reciprocity (Tansky & Cohen, 2001), and reciprocity according to Gouldner (1960) is the norm of assumption that the recipient of benefit is 12.

(23) obliged to repay the donor in one way or the other. Training and development of employees could be considered as a social exchange which is based on implicit obligations that needs trust. It gives opportunities and benefits. In showing appreciation for these opportunities and benefits, the employees may feel obliged to give back to the organization thus making them more committed to the organization (Tansky & Cohen, 2001). It is arguable that organizations need to attain flexibility and skill interchangeability from a trainable, responsive workforce (Jarratt & Coates, 1995). How to acquire and maintain such a workforce remains the question. The conventional psychological contract that gave employees security in exchange for commitment is becoming a thing of the past. As employees are increasingly getting aware that job security is no longer included in employment contract, they may live in fear of being laid off. Why should these workers be committed to the organization (Tansky & Cohen, 2001). Meanwhile, workers may remain with the same company; they need to be trained and developed to move into new jobs (Tansky & Cohen, 2001). Among human resource practices that may lead to employee commitment is continuous training and development (London, 1989). London further described employee training and development as a long-term personal and professional growth of individuals; this fall within the domain of human resource development, which refers to organized learning experiences provided by the employer to enhance performance and personal growth of employees (Nadler & Nadler, 1989). Some organizations refer to their employee training and development programs as career development programs since they help employees to build skills that are necessary to move to other jobs in the organization, thus leading to commitment. According to Gutteridge, Leibowitz, and Shore (1993), organizational leaders believed that the following significant results can be produced because of organizational development efforts: enhanced employee commitment, enhanced employee skills and morale, employee empowerment, improved HR planning and selection, and greater strategic advantage. Training and development are also refers to as a set of systematic and planned activities designed by an organization to provide its members with the opportunities to learn necessary skills to meet current and future job demands (Gutteridge, Leibowitz, and Shore ,1993).. Theories of Training and Development It should be noted that for effective leaning and development, in a learning environment, motivation provides the incentive that propels trainees to devote to learning activities, and 13.

(24) intrinsic factors are critical success factor of learning. The self–determination theory proposes that for one to be motivated and to function at optimal level, a set of psychological needs must be met. These needs are relatedness, competence, and autonomy. Relatedness relates to association and sense of belonging with others. This association and belonging provide the required emotional security that individuals need to actively explore and effectively deal with their worlds. The rationale behind the self-determination theory from a learning perspective is that a strong sense of relatedness better positions trainees to take on challenges, set positive goals, and establish high expectations that motivate them. Furthermore, relatedness needs provide a motivating force for developing social regulations and adapting to interpersonal circumstances (Andrew & Martin, 2009) The theory of reasoned action argued those trainees‘ reactions to technology use tends to affect performance of users. The theory was proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen in 1985. The assumption is based on the rationale that a person‘s decision to engage in a specific behavior is based on his or her own will, which is determined by organized thoughts. The theory highlights that under a great extent an individual‘s behavior can be reasonably assessed from his or her behavioral intention, which is decided by behavioral attitude and subjective norm. A person‘s attitude towards behavior is determined by salient beliefs about consequences of engaging in the behavior in addition to evaluating those consequences. In the same vein, if employees willfully react favorably to training, their learning and transfer of transfer and commitment will take place (Chi, 2011). Kirkpatrick (1998), also mentioned that for the employees who are train to successfully adopt what they learn in a training programme on to the job. It is significant to provide help, encouragement, and rewards. He mention intrinsic (inwards feelings of satisfaction, pride and happiness) and extrinsic (coming from the outside such as praise, freedom and recognition) rewards as being very important for learning and commitment of employee being train. Also, employee who enthusiasm and oriented towards learning are proposed to be more trainable and will tend to be likely to stay in the organization. Training and development did not only have significant impact on the employee only but also on the organization (Kraiger, Mclinder & Casper, 2004). In conclusion, there is a great deal of positive outcomes that can be deriving from training and development both at the employee and organizational levels as indicated in the literature. Thus, from the literature review the concept of organization training and development as perceive by employee can be viewed in various dimension. This research adopts the dimensions proposed by Bartlett (2001) on employee access to training and development (on14.

(25) the-job or formal training). Other variables that are assess and included in the study to determine training are based on frequency of participation in training events (Tharenou & Conroy, 1994). How much training they receive that enhance behavioural change and increase organizational commitment, the perceived support of training from colleagues and support from management ―Motivation to learn from training‖ developed by Noe and Schmitt (1986), and other item adopted from Noe and Wilk, (1993) benefits of training scale.. Psychological Capital The metaphor of the psychological capital has emerged in recent organizational psychology literature. The motives for this sudden popularity are perhaps twofold. First, the concept addressed the importance of ‗‗who you are‘‘ beyond the concept of economic capital (what you have), human capital (what you know), and social (who you know). The other reason is that the relationships people have with their employing organisations are undergoing rapid, and sometimes far-reaching, changes. The PsyCap provides means of examining how such changes are perceived by those most directly affected and gives some indication of the effects such changes may have on their attitudes and behaviour. PsyCap is derived from positive organization behaviour basis and criteria (Luthans & Youssef, 2007; Luthans et al., 2004) as a way of examining and exploring the study and application of positively oriented human resources strengths and psychological capacities that can be ascertained by. measuring, developed, and effectively managed for performance. improvement in today‘s workplace (Luthans, 2008). According to Larson &Luthans (2006), PsyCap during the late 1990s emerged with a renewed emphasis on what is right with people, rather than the almost total preoccupation psychology has had over the years with what is wrong with people. The composite construct of PsyCap has been defined as ―an individual‘s positive psychological state of development characterized by: (1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resilience) to attain success‖ (Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007, p. 3). As organizations seek ways to help employees navigate the ever-challenging work environment, they increasingly are recognizing the importance of positivity and concentrating. 15.

(26) on developing employee strengths, rather than dwelling on the negative and trying to fix employee vulnerabilities and weaknesses. Moreover, positive psychology has a great potential for influencing the efficiency and performance of the human resource. Originally, Law Wong, and Mobley, (1998) proposed a conceptual framework for establishing how PsyCap is a multidimensional approach; they conclude that PsyCap is influenced by organizational environment and that influences several positive and negative outcomes in the organization. Citing from Luthans (2001) different organizational phenomena have impact on the employee, specifically on the characteristics that assemble their PsyCap (See Figure 2.1). Accordingly, high PsyCap employees observe and contribute to the organization, while low PsyCap employee absence from work vice versa. According to Luthans (2008), PsyCap has developed mainly since 2005 and therefore all findings should be considered as preliminary and need further research. Thus, PsyCap indicates the state. of employees ‗s. positive. expressive status during the process of. advancement in the organisation and it aids individual‘s to recognize their responsibility as well as withstands positive insight of well-being. PsyCap is categorized by four topographies and they are Hope, Resilience, optimism, and efficacy and they are elucidates as follows: Hope draw from the work of positive psychology and was defined as ‗‗positive motivational state that was based on an interactively derived sense of successful a) agency (goal-oriented energy) and b) pathways (Planning to meet goals)‘‘ (Snyder, Irving, & Anderson, 1991, p.287). Resilience is another component of PsyCap and it is compose with three constituents, including organisations principles that employees can deal with challenges in the organisational environment, similarly, employees with high resilience capacity might not only rebuild from the complications, but also accomplish tasks, and find significant value during work (Luthans & Youssef, 2004). Moreover, Luthans and Youssef (2004), define resilience as ‗‗the capacity to bounce back from adversity, uncertainty, failure, or even positive but seemingly overwhelming changes‘‘ P.152). Optimism is another very important dimension of PsyCap applied and its definition derived from attribution theory in terms of employee‘s experiences of negative and positives happenings (Seligman,1999). Thus, optimism helps employees to achived objectives of the Organisation.. 16.

(27) Self-Efficacy is defined as ‗‗one‘s convention about employees abilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to successfully execute a specific tasks within a given context‘‘ (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998, p.66). Employees with self- efficacy are prepared to be more committed on tasks and are likely to take demanding tasks. Likewise, they generally continue to the end no matter how many hindrances they meet in the work environment (Luthans &Youssef, 2004).. Optimism. Hope Positive Organizational Emotion. PsyCap Resiliency. Self-Efficacy. Positive Organizational Outcomes Work Performance Work Commitment Work Satisfaction Positive organisational change. Negative Organizational Outcomes Cynicism Work Absenteeism. Supportive Organization al Climate. Figure 2.1.Pychological Capital Model. Adapted from ‘‘An Integrated Model of PsyCap in the Workplace‘‘ by Luthans, F. (2008), Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work. Available at http://wpedia.goo.ne.jp/enwiki/Psychological_capital. Copyright 2008 by NTT Resonant Inc.. Organizational Commitment Commitment phenomena have been widely investigated because it affects individual attitudes and behaviour towards the workplace (Dockel, 2003). Many definitions of 17.

(28) organization commitment exist due to the fact that many researchers define it their own way to suit their investigation purposes. Kanter (1968) viewed commitment as the willingness of social actor to give energy and loyalty to the organization. Sheldom (1998) too define it as being positive evaluation of organization and the organizations goals. Through the years Buchanan (1974), define commitment as being a bond between an employee and an employer. Porter, steers, Mowday and Boulian (1974) discussed three major components of commitment as being a strong belief in and acceptance of organization‘s goals, willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and a definite desire to maintain organizational membership. Bateman and Strasser (1984) stated that the reasons of studying organizations commitment were generally related to employee behaviors and performance, effectiveness, attitudinal, affective, and cognitive construct such as job satisfaction, characteristics of employee such their age and the number years they spend in the organizations. Bateman and Strasser (1984) further stated that organization commitment had been operationally defined as multidimensional in nature, involving and employee‘s loyalty to the organization, willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization, degree of goals and value congruency with the organization, and desire to maintain membership. Furthermore organization commitments are a significant construct in predicting organization performance and intention to quit (Mathieu & Zajac. 1990; Tett & Meyer, 1993). Summaries of the definitions highlighted are taken from organizational commitments literature: Table 2.1 Definitions of Organizational Commitment Author Organizational. Definitions. Kanter (1968). viewed commitment as the willingness of. Commitment. social actor to give energy and loyalty to the organization Burchana (1974),. commitment as being a bond between an employee and an employer. Mowday and Boulian. View commitment as being a strong belief in. (1974). and acceptance of organization‘s goals, willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and a definite desire to maintain organizational membership. Allen& Meyer (1990). The employee psychological state that attached him/her to the organizations 18.

(29) This research agreeing with Meyer & Herscovitch, (2001) and Dockel (2003) that commitment influences attitude autonomously of other drives or behavior and, might lead to the persistence in a course of action even in the face of conflicting interest and attitudes. Therefore, it can results in employees exhibiting behaviors which might be in contrast with their own interest. In this vain employees uphold the values and goals of the organization and upon achievement; they receive reward which eventually transforms into certain type of commitment. As Dockel (2003), puts it,‗‗ most social behavior is predicted on the individual expectation that one‘s actions with respect to others will results in some kind of commensurate return‘‘ (p.31). According to Robinson (1996), Employee constantly gauge whether the organization has met the employees‘ perpetual belief of what they are entitle to have in the organization. Additional Robinson noted that ‗‗when employees feel that their employers have failed to fulfill their obligations, the employees tend to reduce their obligation by showing withdrawal behavior…decreased level of commitment and turnover‘‘ (Dockel, 2003, p. 42) Previous organizational commitment researchers have classified commitment into different constructs. These examine the various perspectives studied and documented and how they are expressed within the setting of the organization. Mowday, Porter, and steers (1982) divided commitment into attitudinal commitment and behavioral commitment. Attitudinal commitment specifically, represents the degree of loyalty an individual had for an organization. This commitment emphasized an individual‘s identification and involvement in the organization. However, behavioral commitment reflected the process which individuals linked them to an organization and also it also focused on the actions of the individuals. Other previous researcher like Etzioni (1961) examined commitment into three perspectives Moral (which is the acceptance of organizational goals), calculative (employees receiving inducements to match contributions) and Alienate (represents an affective attachment to the organization. This study looks at the organizational commitment from the perspective of Meyer and Allen‘s (1991) three component model namely, affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. This model is widely adopted in most organizational commitment studies and their measurement scale widely used.. The three. component model are further explain below and their applications in previous studies. Affective Commitment. 19.

(30) Affective commitment is defined as the emotional bond, identification, and involvement that employees have with an organization (Meyer& Allen, 1993; O‘Reily & Chatman, 1986). It is a state of mind that develops when an employee becomes involved in, recognizes the value-relevance of his attachment with an organization or course of action. Earlier in 1990s, Allen and Meyer (1993) had defined affective commitment as an employee‘s emotional attachment to, identification with and involvement in the organization. They further reiterate that individual retained their membership choice and this was their commitment to the organization. According to Ahmad and Bakar, (2003) study findings on training and commitment among white collar worker in Malaysia elucidates that support for training is strongly correlated with affective commitment, motivation to learn, is found out to significantly and positively correlated with affective commitment. The more motivation given to employees to learn in training, the higher the affective commitment will be.. Continuance Commitment Continuance commitment is the willingness to remain in an organization because of the investment that an employee have with the ‗‗nontransferable‘‘ investments. Nontransferable investments consisted of things such as retirement, relationships with other employees, or things that are special to the organizations (Reichers, 1985). Continuance commitment also included factors such as years of employment or benefits that the employee might receive that were special to the organization (Reichers, 1985). According to Allen and Meyer (1990) defined continuance commitment as commitment based on costs that employee associated with leaving the organization. Employees who shared continuance commitment with their employer often made it very difficult for an employee to quit. Therefore, continuance commitment is related to the willingness to remain in the organization. There were many studies used with continuance commitment to examine the relationship between employees and their organizations. In the research of Ahmad and baker (2003), support for training and motivation to learn had no association with the continuance commitment. However, training environment and the benefits of training had a positive and significant relationship with continuance commitment. Therefore, employee will take into consideration of the cost associated with leaving the organization. Normative Commitment 20.

(31) Meyer and Allen (1991) define normative commitment as being a feeling of obligation. However, it was argued that normative commitment is natural and steps from an individual background or society. According to Weiner (1982), normative commitments represent a generalized value of loyalty and duty to the organization. Since normative commitment represents an individual‘s obligation, many variables were found to be associated in normative commitment Table 2.2 Organizational Commitment Model Model Description Mowday, Porter, and steers. Attitudinal commitment specifically, represents the. (1982). degree of loyalty an individual had for an organization. This. commitment. emphasized. an. individual‘s. identification and involvement in the organization. Behavioral commitment reflected the process which individuals linked them to an organization and also it also focused on the actions of the individuals. Meyer and Allen‘s (1991). Affective. three component mode. identification, and involvement that employees have. commitment. the. emotional. bond,. with an organization (Meyer& Allen, 1993; O‘Reily & Chatman, 1986). , Continuance commitment, willingness to remain in an organization because of the investment that an employee have with ‗‗nontransferable‘‘ investments. Normative commitment. feeling of obligation Etzioni (1961). Moral (which is the acceptance of organizational goals), Calculative (employees receiving inducements to match contributions) Alienate (represents an affective attachment to the firm). 21.

(32) Employee Job Satisfaction Employee job satisfaction is a concept that is widely study in organizational behavior research, and it started as early as 1912 when F.W Taylor introduced the concept of scientific management, and emphasizes the important of mechanical production system as the solutions to increasing productivity and efficiency in the work place. Originally, the feelings and attitudes of workers caught employers‘ attention, but people were still treated as a tool, not an asset. Even though, the concept was in its early stages, Taylor found out that there is a positive correlation between satisfaction and productivity. Since then, job satisfaction concept has been widely research, and it is central variable in both research and theory of organizational phenomenon (Spector, 1997). Thus, employee job satisfaction definitions differ from one researcher to another (Khan & Riaz, 2011). To sum, Table 2.3 gives a summary of some of the common definitions of job satisfaction In addition, job satisfaction illustrates the degree of fulfillment and pleasure an employee feels towards their engagement (Spector, 1997). It has been proven to be essential factor for organizational performance, as Robbins, Millett, Cacioppe, and Waters- Marsh (2003) found that presence of satisfaction with job offers significant outcomes like; reduced absenteeism, increased effectiveness, and reduced turnover intention in the organization. It is also highly agreed among researchers that employee job satisfaction offer higher returns, and help organizations to achieve desired outcomes, because it has direct effects on organizational commitment, motivation, absenteeism, deviant behavior, turnover, organization citizenship behavior, and life satisfaction of the employees (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2006).. 22.

(33) Table 2.3 Definitions of Job Satisfaction Author (s). Definitions. Herzberg, Mausner &. Job Satisfaction is related with an employee‘s interest in. Synderman, (1959). the work, pay, and the opportunity to gain achievement, recognition, responsibility and /or advancement.. Locke & Henne, (1986). It is pleasurable or positive emotional state that results from the job experiences and job appraisal of the employees at work Job satisfaction is the extent to which people like or dislike. Spector,( 1997). their jobs, or, with a global approach, as the employees‘ feelings and emotions towards their work experiences.. Schermerhorn, Hunt &. The degree to which individuals feel positively or. Osborn, (2004). negatively about their work engagement. Mckenna , (2000). An individual‘s evaluation of how well the job meets the personal expectations and needs. Employees‘ job satisfaction could also be explored within a facet approach as the attitude of employees towards various aspects of their job. Taris and Feij (2001) illustrate two aspects of standards in work: Intrinsic and extrinsic values. Extrinsic values refer to material work aspects, such as salary and opportunity for promotion. While intrinsic values refer to immaterial aspects of the job, such as job variety and independence. Therefore, an organization human resources officer have huge potentials to increase satisfaction of employee; however some poor strategies have the potentials to lead to job dissatisfaction and subsequently intention to leave as certain employers deliberately lure job seekers with expectation which they end up not meetings. Therefore, to avoid such situations organizations need to satisfy employees‘ as a means to achieve the organizational goals. According to Hassan et al, (2011), some employees contribute to their own success in organization as they believe the achievement of organizational performance is part of personal goals. Thus, employees tend to motivate themselves to meet their personal goals, in order to achieve that, they put a lot of efforts to achieve the objectives of their organizations. This further reiterated that organization employee development is positively related to job. 23.

(34) satisfaction and commitment (Pati &Reilly, 1997). Thus one of the best ways to enhance job engagement is to strengthen the shared goals of employees. In public organizations, where employees play a major role to provide revenue due to Government in a fair and transparent manner, the management and satisfaction of the human resources is proving to be very imperative in achieving the organizational goals, as it will not only boost performance of public enterprises employee but also affects the growth and performance of the country economy at large. With that significant benefit derive from employee job satisfaction, Bradley (2007) highlighted some factors that affect and ensure satisfaction and retention of employees and they are: employee work engagement, compensations, promotions, and overall job security. The study conducted by Bartlett (2009) on health workers training and organization commitment established that majority of the employees are satisfied with the job and willing to stay if the organization invest on them. The study findings went on to elucidates that employee training, positive working conditions, and rewards increase employee commitment behavior. According to Colquitt et al, (2009) Hackman and Oldham‘s job characteristics theory proposes that high motivation is related to experiencing three psychological states whilst working and they are: meaningful of work, responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of results. Many researchers measured employee job satisfaction in various dimensions. This research looks at job satisfaction in the perspectives of Hackman, (1974). According to Hackman and Oldham (1974), jobs that are likely to motivate performance and contribute to employee satisfaction exhibit five core job characteristics: which are satisfaction with skill variety, task identity, task significant, autonomy, and feedback. The Job Diagnostics Survey (JDS) questionnaire by Hackman and Oldham (1974, 1975) has been selected to measure employee job satisfaction, as it measures overall and specific facets of job satisfaction as related to satisfaction with skills, task and results. The theory also argues that job satisfaction is linked to an individual‘s perception of their job, indicating the aspects of job they value (Colquitt et al., 2009). Accordingly, people assess their job satisfaction according to specific facet of the job and it impacts on personal and work outcomes, as highlighted in the figure below.. 24.