第三章 不自證己罪與申報義務之競合關係
第五節 美國內地稅法有關稅務申報資料受保護之範圍
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第五節 美國內地稅法有關稅務申報資料受保護之範圍
延續之前的討論,「不自證己罪」原則所保護的個人資料之隱私 權,與國家課予人民自行申報租稅的協力義務,兩者之間的利益平衡,
存在著微妙的關係。若是人民在申報書上所揭露的資訊,被國家的其 他機關作為入罪的依據,大多數不法所得者寧可選擇不申報此項所 得,待檢調機關揭發其不法事由時,稅捐稽徵機關再去追討這筆欠稅。
美國司法史上著名的 Al Capone 案之被告,即是此中之代表案例。
美國當初立法採用「自願自我核課原則」(Principle of Voluntary Self-Assessment)114,來作為租稅行政體系之基本原則。但是美國國 會也承認,不可能要求納稅義務人「完全地自願」申報其租稅資訊,
故必須藉由其他配套措施,方能使納稅義務人仍願意誠實申報租稅資 訊,在這些配套措施中,最重要的有二種,其一為「對於納稅義務人 所申報或提出之租稅資訊予以保密」,其二則為「對於逃漏稅者或其他 違反稅法上義務者可以刑罰或行政罰」。尤其前者的目的,在於使納稅 義務人於提出租稅資訊後,不必擔心私密隱私外洩,而提高其履行協 力義務之意願115。此為說明個人隱私權的保護與申報義務,兩者間密切 相關。納稅義務人所關注的,莫過於其所申報的資料受保護之範圍。
第一項 稅務申報資料的法律性質
關於納稅義務人於所得稅申報書所揭露之資訊,其受法律保護的 程度和範圍。首先必要釐清的是,納稅義務人的稅務申報書,是該定
114 其原文名詞另有稱為: “Voluntary Information-Gathering and Reporting”,究其意義應為相同。
115 謝宜珊,《論租稅資訊隱私之保護》,中原大學財經法律學系碩士論文,2003 年 1 月,頁 67。
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位於個人隱私的資料,還是屬於政府的公開資訊。如同前文討論的 1911 年的 Wilson v. United States 案,法院認為公司應申報的內部資料,
並不能適用「不自證己罪」原則,因為其性質不屬於私人財產116。在 1973 年的 Coach v. United States 一案,限定只有具私密性及個人性 的資料,才能被涵蓋在「不自證己罪」原則的保護範圍內。因此案之 稅務申報義務人為自然人,所以其所申報的資料屬於個人隱私的資 料,准予適用「不自證己罪」原則117。
上述兩個判決,似乎可以歸納以申報義務人是否為自然人,而將 其所申報的資料分成兩類。如果該申報人是非自然人,則其所申報的 資料是屬於公開資訊,不得適用「不自證己罪」原則;如果是自然人,
則屬於個人隱私的資料,可適用「不自證己罪」原則。
第二項 憲法層面的討論
除了上述個案判決,本節主題是否在美國憲法亦有其定位?其相 關之概念可見於美國憲法所保障的「私領域」 (Zone of Privacy)
之觀念,而私領域的概念所表彰的內涵是「隱私權」118。美國憲法對於 隱私權保障的依據,最主要為美國聯邦憲法增修條款第 1 條保障言論 自由,包含匿名發言之自由,就此部分與發展隱私權之概念有關 119; 第 3 條保障私人空間不受到侵犯,此部份屬於隱私權之範圍120;第 4
116 See Wilson v. United States , 221 US 361 (1911).
117 See Coach v. United States, 409 U.S.322 (1973).
118 將「隱私權」當作一法律概念來探討者,首見於 1890 年由學者 Samuel D. Warren 和 Louis D.
Brandeis 所共同發表的「The Right to Privacy」。在這篇文章中引用了大法官 Mr. Cooley 之定義,其 認為隱私權為生活之權利(Right to life)與獨處之權利(Right to be let alone)。
119 美國聯邦憲法增修條文第 l 條原文:“Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of
grievances.”。
120 美國聯邦憲法增修條文第 3 條原文:“No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house,
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條保障人民人身、住所、文件以及財物之安全,不受到非合理之搜索 與拘捕之權利,搜索或拘捕也應指明搜索地點與拘補對象等,此部份 亦屬於人民身體隱私之範圍121;還有前文提及的第 5 條:「任何人於任 何刑事案件當中,不得被迫成為對抗自己之證人。」其用意在於保障 被告或犯罪嫌疑人不致因此自證己罪,避免其受偽證罪之追訴。
美國學者多認為,個人申報的稅務資料應在憲法中「隱私權」所 涵蓋的範圍。但關鍵在於「不自證己罪原則」之要件,「本質上必須是 供述或具有情報傳達性質之證據」。稅務資料是否屬此類型證據,決定 其是否亦被涵納在「不自證己罪原則」的保護範圍內。一般而言,上 述要件所指之「供述或具有情報傳達性質之證據」,係以口述證據為原 則,然而稅務申報資料為紙本作成之證據,所以於適用上不無疑義。
為解決此問題,美國聯邦最高法院及下級法院在其判決中表示,為不 讓「不自證己罪原則」所保障的範圍因此而限縮,認定稅務申報資料 亦符合要件中所謂「供述證據」的定義。因此,個人之稅務申報資料 為該要件中的所規範的範圍內122。
第三項 其他的法律規範
在 1870 年,美國的財政收入法 (Revenue Act) 增列了一項條文,
without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ”。
121美國聯邦憲法增修條款第 4 條原文:“The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.”。
122 參照劉興源,《DISCLOSURE OF ILLEGAL GAINS AND 5TH AMENDMENT PRIVILEGE: A STUDY OF AMERICAN INCOME TAX LAW》,東海學報,1984 年 6 月號,頁 119。摘錄其原文:
“The traditional view is that the privilege extends only be testimonial utterance. It is not usually considered to extend to something which is not oral testimony or documentary evidence….Subsequent cases from both the Supreme Court and lower courts have upheld the tendency that the privilege covers any requirement that the accused engage in non-verbal activity.” 。
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規定稅務申報書不可供作以公開目的之使用,除非用於一般統計用途 且不得揭示個人或機構名稱。但 1909 年公布之企業實行法(Corporation Excise Act) 及 1913 年修訂的財政收入法 (Revenue Act),卻將個人 稅務申報書定義為公開之資訊 (Public Records)。所以只要有總統發 布之行政命令或同意為依據,即可取得個人的租稅申報資料。於是以 總統為首的行政部門,遂將納稅義務人之租稅資料當作政府之資產,
廣泛地於行政部門中流用,對於租稅資訊享有極大之使用決定權123。此 情況至 1976 年,國會通過租稅改革法後才得以改善。
第四項 內地稅法之規定
美國的國稅局為全美掌握人民資訊隱私最多的機關。尤其是犯罪 偵查機關,很依賴納國稅局提供其所持有稅義務人的租稅資訊,以完 成行政任務。美國國會為免其所制定之財政收入法被行政部門濫用,
故於 1976 年制定租稅改革法 (Tax Reform Act),修正當時的內地稅 法第 6103 條,明確授權在何種情況下,國稅局始能將租稅資訊公開給 行政機關或是一般私人,以避免行政部門濫用申報資訊,保護納稅義 務人之資訊隱私,並促使納稅人願意履踐申報義務,以符合美國租稅 體系賴以運作之「自願自我核課原則」。
美國內地稅法第 6103 條(a)項首先揭示了稅務申報書之內容為保
123 See Joseph J. Darby, Confidentiality and the Law of Taxation, 1998, 46 Am. J. Comp. L. 577.
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人之稅務申報書(Return)及申報資訊 (Return Information) 對外揭 露,其規定於本條之第(c)項至第(o)項共計 13 項125。由 上 開 項 目 第 (h) 項 可 知 , 若 基 於 課 稅 行 政 調 查 程 序 (Tax
124 IRC §6103 Confidentially and disclosure of returns and return information.
(a) Returns and return information shall be confidential, and except as authorized by this title- (1) no officer or employee of the United States,
(2) no officer or employee of any States, any local child support enforcement agency, or any local agency administering a program listed in subsection (1)(7)(D) who has or had access to returns or return information under this section, and
(3) no other person (or officer or employee thereof) who has or had access to returns or return information under subsection (e)(1)(D)(iii),(1)(12),paragraph (2) or (4)(B) of subsection (m), or subsection (n),
(4) shall disclose any return or return information obtained by him in any manner in connection with his service as such an officer or an employee or otherwise or under the provisions of this section. For purpose of this subsection, the term “officer or employee” includes a former officer or employee.
125 修正後的美國內地稅法第 6103 條明訂下列可為之揭露的對象及情況如下:1 納稅義務人之指派
IRC §6103 Confidentially and disclosure of returns and return information…..
(c) Disclosure of returns and return information to designee of taxpayer.
(d) Disclosure to State tax officials and State and local law enforcement agencies.
(e) Disclosure to person having material interest.
(f) Disclosure to committees of Congress.
(g) Disclosure to President and certain other person.
(h) Disclosure to certain Federal officers and employees for purposes of tax administration, etc.
(i) Disclosure to Federal officers or employees for administration of Federal laws not relating to tax administration.
(j) Statistical use.
(k) Disclosure of certain returns and return information for tax administration purpose.
(l) Disclosure of returns and return information for purposes other than tax administration.
(m) Disclosure of taxpayer identity information.
(n) Certain other persons.
(o) Disclosure of return information with respect to certain taxes.
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126 IRC §6103 …(h) Disclosure to certain Federal officers and employees for purposes of tax administration, etc.
(1) Department of the Treasury……..
(2) Department of the Justice. In a matter involving tax administration, a return or return information shall be open to inspection by or disclosure to officers and employees of the Department of Justice (including United States attorneys) personally and directly engaged in, and solely for their use in, any proceeding before a Federal grand jury or preparation for any proceeding (or investigation which may result in such a proceeding) before a Federal grand jury or any Federal or State court, but only if-
(A) the taxpayer is or may be a party to the proceeding, or the proceeding arose out of, or in connection with, determining the taxpayer’s civil or criminal liability, or the collection of such civil liability in respect of any tax imposed under this title;
(B) the treatment of an item reflected on such return is or may be related to the resolution of an issue in the proceeding or investigation; or
(C) such return or return information relates or may relate to a transactional relationship between a person who is or may be a party to the proceeding and the taxpayer which affects, or may affect, the resolution of an issue in such proceeding or investigation.
127 美國內地稅法第 6103 條第 i 項規定關於刑事犯罪調查之揭露:(以下中譯資料係參照謝宜珊,《論
1.基於合理原因(reasonable cause)可以相信,該申報資訊所敘的內容該當刑事犯罪行為。
2.基於合理原因(reasonable cause)可以相信,該申報書或申報資訊「是」或「可能是」與犯罪 行為有關。
3.該申報書或申報資訊是唯一用來行聯邦犯罪調查或訴訟程序之資料,且這些資料無法由其他管
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IRC §6103…(i) Disclosure to Federal officers or employees for administration of Federal laws not relating to tax administration.
(1) Disclosure of returns and return information for use n criminal investigations.
(A) In general. Except as provided in paragraph (6), any return or return information with respect to any specified taxable period or period shall, pursuant to and upon the grant of an ex parte order by a Federal district court judge or magistrate under subparagraph (B), be open (but only to the extent necessary as provided in such order) to inspection by, or disclosure to officers and employees of any Federal agency who are personally and directly engaged in-
(i) preparation for any judicial or administrative proceeding pertaining to the enforcement of a specifically designated Federal criminal statute(not involving tax administration) to which the United States or such agency is or may be a party.
(ii) any investigation which my result in such a proceeding, or
(iii) any Federal grand jury proceeding pertaining to enforcement of such a criminal statute to which the United States or such agency is or may be a party, solely for the use of such officers and employees in such preparation, investigation, or grand jury proceeding.
(iii) any Federal grand jury proceeding pertaining to enforcement of such a criminal statute to which the United States or such agency is or may be a party, solely for the use of such officers and employees in such preparation, investigation, or grand jury proceeding.