第一章 緒論
第二節 文獻回顧
19 CFE-DMHA, 22 June 2015,Humanitarian Information Paper. Rohingya Migrant Update.
CHIP No.2,
https://www.cfe-dmha.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8SVon1EDyUU%3D&portalid=0，檢 索日期:2016 年 12 月 10 日。
20 Soe Zeya Tun, 24 November 2016,“ Rohingya Muslims flee Myanmar amid deadly attack,”
Aljazeera,
http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/11/rohingya-muslims-flee-myanmar-deadly-attacks-161 123201948561.html，檢索日期:2016 年 12 月 8 日。
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在難民國際保護層面，Kelley 及 Durieux 批評聯合國難民署無力解決 嚴重的難民問題並提供可行解決方案。即使全球難民問題尚有難民國政治問 題、收容國政府對非國民及不請自來的難民照顧之責任分擔、以及收容國基 於經濟、政治安定及避免造成社會安全隱憂等考慮下，不願積極介入難民接 待事務，卻反而造成庇護制度濫用、非法偷渡及人權迫害等嚴重問題。23如 同 Kelley 及 Durieux 已意識到聯合國難民署應強化國際間多邊合作議題，
聯合國難民署在 2003 年提出「難民及受關切之人問題解決架構」(Framework for Durable Solutions For Refugees and Persons of Concern)，強化難民跨國協 調基本架構，彌補政府責任、國際人權法案、國際難民法及人權等差距之 1951 難民公約之「公約補充」(Convention Plus)。24 在此一「公約補充」架
21 難民定義：Refugee are legally defined as people who are outside their countries because of a well-founded fear of persecution based on their race, ewligion,nationality,political opinion or membership in a particular social group,and who cannot or do not want to return
home.“Protecting Refugees:question and answers,” UNHCR, 1 February 2002,
http://www.unhcr.org/afr/publications/brochures/3b779dfe2/protecting-refugees-questions-ans wers.html，檢索日期:2017 年 2 月 1 日。
22 Karen Jocobsen , June 2003 , “ Researching refugees;some methodlogical and ethnic considerations in social science and forced migration,”New Issues inRefugee Research, Working Paper No.90, Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee (UNHCR), Geneva, pp. 13-5.
23 Kelley Ninette and Jean-Francois Durieux, May 2004, “UNHCR and Current challenges to international refugee protection,” Refugee 22 (1): 6.
24 “Convention Plus:Questions and Answers.”, 20 May 2003, UNHCR, http://www.unhcr.org/3e4b7c4b4.pdf ，檢索日期:2016 年 12 月 25 日。
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(DLI,Development through Local Integration)等節(即 4Rs 及 DLI)進行合作。其中難民援助發展則是以協助發展中國家如何與其他國家進行難民
25 Kelley Ninette and Jean-Francois Durieux, 2004, p. 14.
26 Jeff Crisp, May 1999,“Policy challenges of the new diaspora:migrant networks and their impact on asylum flows and regimes,” New Issues in Refugee Research, Working Paper No.7, Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee (UNHCR), Geneva, pp. 10-2.
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Stein 主張難民援助及發展模式(Refugee Aid and Development)係指將 發展納為難民援助計畫之目的，即最終目標是讓難民能夠在計畫結束時達到
27 Jeff Crisp, April 2004, “The local integration and local settlement of refugees: a conceptual and historical analysia,” New Issues in Refugee Research, Working Paper No.102, Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee (UNHCR), Geneva, p. 3.
28 Dryden-Peterson Sarah, September 2003, “Local integration as a durable solution : refugees, host populations and education in Uganda,” New Issues in Refugee Research, Working Paper No.93, Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee (UNHCR), Geneva, pp. 14-6.
29 Sally Ainsbury, 2003,”Is the UNHCR doing the job? Combining refugee relief with local development in Africa,” Communication Development Research. Id 21. ,
https://www.id21.org/society/s10csg1g1.html，檢索日期:2016 年 12 月 20 日。
30 Barry N. Stein, 1994, “Returnee Aid and Development.” UNHCR,
http://www.unhcr.org/research/evalreports/3bd40fb24/returnee-aid-and-development.html，檢索日期
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31 Jose C. Moya, 2005, "Immigrants and Associations: A Global and Historical Perspective,"
Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31 (5): 833–64.
32 Rachel Hek, 2005, “The Experiences and Needs of Refugee and Asylum Seeking Children in the UK: A Literature Review, ” Evaluation of the Children’s Fund, University of Brimingham.
Research Report RR635, http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/5398/1/RR635.pdf，檢索日期 2016 年 9 月 7 日。
33 Gameledin-Adhani Maknun , Libby Cooper,and Barry Knight, 2002, Refugee Settlement: Can Communities Cope?, London: Evelyn Oldfield Unit, pp. 23-4.
34 Beth Elise Whitaker, June 1999, “Changing opportunities: refugees and host communities in western Tanzania,” New Issues in Refugee Research, Working Paper No.11, Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee (UNHCR), Geneva, pp. 6-7.
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35 Roger Zetter and Martyn Peral, 2000, “The minority within the minority: refugee community based organizations in the UK and the impact of restrictionalism,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 26 (4): 675-98.
36 David Griffiths, Nando Sigonda and Roger Zetter, 2006,“Integrative paradigms, marginal reality : refugee community organizations and dispersal in Britain ,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 32(5): 881- 98.
37 Deepa Narayan, Raj Patel, Kai Schaft, Anne Rademacherand Koch-Schulte Sarah, 2000, Voice of the Poor : Can Anyone Hear Us ?, Washington DC : OxfordUniversity Press . pp. 31-2.
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根據 William Safran 所提出離散六大指標。首先，被放逐的少數社群 或其祖先從一個居住核心，外擴到兩個或兩個以上的區域。再者，離散者對
38 David Griffiths, Nando Sigonda and Roger Zetter, 2005, “Social capital or social exclusion ? The impact of asylum-seeker dispersal on UK refugee community organizations, “ Community Development Journal 4 (2): 169-81.
39 William Safran, Spring 1991, ”Diasporas in Modern Societies:Myths of Homeland and Return ,“ Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 1(1): 83-99.
40 Cindy Horst, 26-28 June 2002,“Transnational Dialogues: Developing Ways to Do Research in a Diasporic Community,” Transnationalsim Seminar at the CERES Summer school pathways of Development.Utrecht, Utrecht University. WPTC-02-13.
41 Nicolas van Hear, 1998, New Diasporas: The mass Exodus, Dispersal and Regrouping of Migrant Communities, Seattle :University of Washington Press, pp. 258-9.
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在海外羅興亞議題研究上，「平權基金會」(Equal Rights Trust)長期專 注於在馬來西亞及泰國的羅興亞社群所遭遇的困境上，例如該組織觀察在 婚。45 另「泰緬邊境聯合會」(Thailand Burma Border Consortium)發表在泰 緬邊境難民營的穆斯林社群現況，該組織研究發現在泰緬邊境的泰國西南方 達克省(Tak province)的三處難民營 Mae La(Tha Song Yang Dist.)、Umpiem
42 CindyHorst, 2002,pp. 4-5.
43 Equal Rights Trust, October 2014, Equal Only in Name: The Human Rights of Stateless Rohingya in Malaysia, London, pp. 24-5.
44 Equal Rights Trust, October 2014, Equal Only in Name: The Human Rights of Stateless Rohingya in Thailand.,London, p. 45.
45 “Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh and Thailand: Fact finding mission to Bangladesh and Thailand.” Danish Immigration Service, May 2011, Copenhagen, pp. 18-9.
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Mai(Phop Phra Dist.)、Nu Po(Amphoe Umphang)等地，分別約安置 8,000 名 至 200 名不等的羅興亞難民，並與卡倫族難民(Karen)比鄰而居。46
Straif 研究指出海外羅興亞社群善用 skype、Facebook 及 Rohingyablog 等社群媒體來進行離散活動，並認為離散並非侷限在以政治或經濟援助其原 鄉，亦可透過數位網路等方式，進行離散社群發聲。47
羅興亞人是否屬阿拉干原住民或屬鄰近吉大港穆斯林及其後裔，學術 界尚有不同定論。有關根據原住民之定義問題，1986 年聯合國特派員 Martinez Cobo (UN Special Rapporteur)報告指出，原住族群、人民或民族在 被侵略或被殖民前，於其自有領域中擁有其歷史延續性，並自我認同與同社 居民(original occupant)有共同祖先(common ancestry)；3-共同文化(culture in general)或特定表徵(manifestation)，例如宗教、生活在同一部族系統、原住 民的團體性(membership)、衣著、謀生方式或生活形態；4-語言，例如使用 特定語言、母語、或家庭中習於使用的溝通方式、或是主要、習慣性、通常
46 “3 Sides to Every Story: A Profile of Muslim Communities in Three Refugees Camps on the Thailand Burma Border , “ Thailand Burma Border Consortium, July 2010, pp.16-17.
http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/78FCDBC2606BC2EF492577A6001DE 22B-Full_Report.pdf. 另有較小規模穆斯鄰社群居住在 Mae Ra Ma Luang 難民營(Sob Moei Dist.)。檢索日期 2015 年 8 月 10 日。
47 Janina Straif, 25 September 2016, “Diaspora Activism: A Case Study of Rohingya Migrants And Their Use of Social Media,” Conference paper read in the 13th Asia Pacific Sociological Association Conference. Phnom Penh
48 Benedict Kingsbury, July 1993,” Indigenous Peoples.” in International Law: A Constructivist Approach to the Asian Controversy, The American Journal of International Law 92(3): 419.
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49 Cobo José Martínez, 8 September 2014, “Study of the Problem of Discrimination against indigenous populations.”
https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/publications/2014/09/martinez-cobo -study/，檢索日期:2016 年 12 月 20 日。
50 International Labour Office, 2013, Understanding the Indigious and Tribal Peoples
Convention 1989 (No.169), Handbook For ILO Tripartite Constituents, Geneva: ILO press,pp.
2-3.
51 陳鴻瑜，2016，《緬甸史》，臺北:臺灣商務印書館，頁 34。
52 Martin Smith, 11 December 1995, “The Muslim ‘Rohingya’of Burma, “ read in Burma Centrum Nederlands Conference.
http://zh.scribd.com/doc/120661008/The-Muslim-Rohingyas-of-Burma-By-Martin-Smith，檢 索日期 2016 年 12 月 10。
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到 1784 年緬甸國王 Bodawpaya 擊敗阿拉干國王 Thamada，並佔領部分當今 孟加拉南部地區，才結束於 1624 年獲得孟加拉 Ahmed Shah of Gaur 支援的 Zerbadee)、若開穆斯林(包含 Rohingya 及 Kaman)、華裔穆斯林(Panthay)及 馬來穆斯林(Pashu)。緬甸國王 Bodawpaya 時期，即以 Pathi 稱呼緬甸穆斯林。而自英國殖民緬甸時期的 1891 年人口普查至 1941 年間，英國政府以 Zerbadee 稱呼緬族穆斯林後裔及經印度與緬甸當地通婚所產生混血穆斯 林，因 Zerbadee 帶有歧視字眼，經緬族穆斯林爭取以 Burman Muslim 取代 Zerbadee。在緬甸獨立運動期間及獨立後的制國憲法中，緬甸穆斯林積極參
53 Chris Lewa, 2011 年 2 月 18 日, “The Rohingya: Forced Migration and Statelessness,”
http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/Rohingya.F-M&Statelessness.htm，檢索日期:2016 年 12 月 12 日。
54 Edward Gait, 1962, A History of Assam, Gauhati: Lawyer’s Book Stall. pp. 280-90.
55 Martin Smith, 1991, Burma: Insurgency And The Politics of Ethnicity, London: Zed Books, pp.
36-7.
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(Bogyoke Aung San)領導下的「反法西斯人民自由聯盟(Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League,AFPFL)」，並主張「緬甸穆斯林就是緬甸人」(Burmese Muslims are Burman)，獲得將於獨立憲法中賦予少數族群自治權的具體承 諾。而在 1955 年 12 月 29 日在時任緬甸總理宇努的建議下，「緬族穆斯林議 會」(BMC)加入了「反法西斯人民自由聯盟」(AFPFL)，並組成「伊斯蘭宗 教事務委員會(Islamic Religious Affairs Council)」進行宗教活動規劃。根據 1973 年人口普查，緬甸當時有 144 個原生族群，包括信仰伊斯
56 Myint Thein, 2012, The Problem of Muslim National Identity in Myanmar, Ph.D. Thesis.
Malaysia (International Islamic University Malaysia), pp. 9-11.
57 Sai Latt, 25 June 2013,“Burma’s Ominous Political Debate over Ethnicity,” The Irrawaday , https://www.irrawaddy.com/opinion/guest-column/burmas-ominous-political-debate-over-ethn icity.html，檢索日期：2016 年 12 月 22 日。
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Maungdaw 城人口數從 1831 年 18,000 人上升至 1911 年十萬人可見。Imtiaz 指出阿拉干穆斯林在 1960 年代初期開始使用 Rohingya 一詞，其目的是強化 港，與阿拉干地區若開族所使用語言並不同。然而，Rkhine 與 Arakan 係出
58 CARE Myanmar, December 2014,“ Reconstructing Houses : Rebuilding Lives (December 2010-April 2011), ” Aus AID, A Process Document on the Emergency Response to Cyclone Giri by CARE Myanmar in partnership with Swanyee Development Foundation. p. 12.
59 “The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census The Union Report: Religion Census Report Volume 2-C, “ Department of Population Ministry of Labour (The Republic of the Union of Myanmar), Immigration and Population, July 2016, pp. 72-3.
60 Imtiaz Ahemd, 2010, The Plight of the Stateless Rohingyas, Dhaka: The University press, pp.
12-5.
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而 Rohang 或 Rohong 則是吉大港語，並以 Rohingya 稱呼「來自若開(Rohang) 的人(gya) 」，並不影響共同生活在阿拉干這塊土地上各族群存在的事實。61 加拉人，無法取得國家登記證 National Registration Card）、行動限制(必須取 得邊境巡警 NaSaKa 簽發旅行許可)、設立模範村(以內部移民方式遷入若開
62 Jeffrey A. Sluka, “State Terror and Anthropology, ” in Jeffrey A. Sluka (ed.), 2000, Death Squad :The Anthropology of state Terror, Philadephia. PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 1-45.