6. 合理規制措施議題的國際投資仲裁實踐分析
6.4 仲裁判斷對合理規制措施與徵收關係之描述
6.4.1 概述
如同本文所一再提及,現今間接徵收規範最大的難題在於,如何區分合理的國家規 制權限行使,也就是不需加以補償的合理規制措施,以及超出合理範圍而成為徵收需要 補償的措施。投資仲裁判斷中也反覆遭遇這個問題,在本文研究的 41 個相關案例中,
於仲裁判斷中直接說明合理規制措施與徵收的關係者,共有 20 件仲裁判斷,約占一半。
這些判斷對兩者關係的觀點,深切的影響其所採之判斷標準,並且透過往後案例的引用,
持續發揮其影響力。而其即使未言明合理規制措施與徵收關係的案例,也會引用這些前 案的判斷標準,進而在判斷時將前案選擇標準時的因素納入考量中。
6.4.2 仲裁庭對間接徵收與合理規制措施關係的見解
從本研究範圍最早的Metalclad v. Mexico一案開始,仲裁庭即注意到合理規制措施與 徵收難以區分的問題,在北美自由貿易協定下,因此產生了許多相關案例。在Metalclad v. Mexico一案,仲裁庭對徵收定義時,認為「(國家行為)隱匿的或是附隨的,剝奪投資 人基於財產權可合理期待之經濟利益之全部或是重要部分,即使國家並未因此獲得利益,
亦同。」。1據此定義,國家規制措施仍有可能構成徵收,並非自始排除於徵收規範之外。
在Pope & Talbot v. Canada一案,仲裁庭亦認為,「……徵收規範,保護的不只公開、
故意的財產徵收……包括國家行為附隨的對財產之利用、或是可合理期待之經濟利益,
之全部或是顯著部分造成影響,以致無法利用之情形,即使地主國並未從中取得利益亦 同。」,並在該案中,仲裁庭表示,「實際上,許多逐步徵收投資的情形,正是由規制措 施所完成的,如果將規制措施自始排除在徵收規範外,將會造成國際法徵收保障的法律
1 Metalclad Corp. v. United Mexican States, ICSID Case No. ARB(AF)/ 97/1, Award, ¶103 (Aug. 30, 2000), 40 I.L.M. 36, 50 (2002). (“Thus, expropriation under NAFTA includes not only open, deliberate and acknowledged takings of property, such as outright seizure or formal or obligatory transfer of title in favour of the host State, but also covert or incidental interference with the use of property which has the effect of depriving the owner, in whole or in significant part, of the use or reasonably-to-be-expected economic benefit of property even if not necessarily to the obvious benefit of the host State.”)
90 漏洞。」2
類似的見解也見於Feldman v. Mexico案,該案中仲裁庭一方面肯認國家規制的空間,
認為並非所有對商業活動造成影響的國家行為都構成徵收,國家仍然可以出於環境等等 考量實施措施。但是另一方面,規制措施不能自外於徵收規範,仲裁庭認為北美自由貿 易協定 1110 條的間接徵收規範足以囊括許多規制措施。3
上述見解並非北美自由貿易協定下的仲裁獨有,其他投資條約下的仲裁決定對此一 議題也表示了類似的立場。如Tecmed v Mexico案(適用墨西哥─西班牙雙邊投資條約)、 Azurix v Argentina案(適用阿根廷─美國雙邊投資條約)、Nykomb Synergetics v. Latvia案 (適用能源憲章條約)、近期的National Grid v. Argentina案(適用阿根廷─聯合王國雙邊投 資條約)等等案例,都表示國家規制措施仍有可能構成徵收。其中National Grid v.
Argentina案特別表示,政府的規制措施仍有可能造成投資嚴重損害,使其喪失全部價值。
在這種狀況下,依據條約,投資人有權獲得補償。4
這些仲裁決定反映了現今仲裁實踐的多數見解,國家不能以其所採措施為規制措施 為由,阻斷一切徵收主張。但是仍應注意,這些仲裁判斷,並沒有否定國家享有的規制 權限,如前述Pope & Talbot v. Canada案,Feldman v Mexico案,與SD Myers v. Canada一 案,仲裁庭雖然都肯定規制措施仍然可受徵收規範限制,但是也承認國家規制空間的存 在。Feldman v. Mexico案中仲裁庭表示,「“政府必須享有為公共利益實施諸如環境保護 措施、新增或修訂稅則、給予或是撤回政府補貼、增加或減少關稅、實施區域計畫等措 施之權利。如果政府行為只要造成商業上的負面影響,就必須加以補償,那麼政府的合 理規制功能將無以為繼。習慣國際法上亦肯認這種規範空間。」5,SD Myers v. Canada
2 Pope & Talbot, Inc. v. Can., Interim Award, ¶99 (NAFTA Trib. 2000).
(“Indeed, much creeping expropriation could be conducted by regulation. and a blanket exception for regulatory measures would create a gaping loophole in international protections against expropriation.……”)
3 Feldman v. United Mexican States, ICSID Case No. ARB(AF)/99/1,Award, ¶¶100-03 (Dec.16, 2002).
4 National Grid v. Argentine Republic, Award, ¶153 (UNCITRAL Arb. Nov.3, 2008).
5 Feldman v. Mex., ¶82 .
(“governments must be free to act in the broader public interest through protection of the environment, new or modified tax regimes, the granting or withdrawal of
91
此外尚有EDF v. Romania案、Gustav v. Ghana案等,仲裁庭的判斷上,亦顯示其認 為國際投資條約中,尚允許不需補償的合理規制空間。9
government subsidies, reductions or increases in tariff levels, imposition of zoning restrictions and the like”, adding that “reasonable governmental regulation of this type cannot be achieved if any business that is adversely affected may seek
compensation, and it is safe to say that customary international law recognizes this”.)
6 S.D. Myers, Inc. v. Can., Partial Award, ¶281, 40 I.L.M. 1408, 1440 (NAFTA Trib. 2000).
7 Saluka v. Czech Republic, Partial Award, ¶¶254-55(UNCITRAL Arb. Mar.17, 2006).
(“The Tribunal acknowledges that Article 5 of the Treaty in the present case is drafted very broadly and does not contain any exception for the exercise of regulatory power. However, in using the concept of deprivation, Article 5 imports into the Treaty the customary international law notion that a deprivation can be justified if it results from the exercise of regulatory actions aimed at the maintenance of public order. In interpreting a treaty, account has to be taken of “any relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between the parties” – a requirement which the International Court of Justice (“ICJ”) has held includes relevant rules of general customary international law.”)
8 Saluka v. Czech, ¶262.
( “In the opinion of the Tribunal, the principle that a State does not commit an expropriation and is thus not liable to pay compensation to a dispossessed alien investor when it adopts general regulations that are “commonly accepted as within the police power of States” forms part of customary international law today…”)
9 EDF v. Republic of Rom., ICSID Case No. ARB/05/13, Award, ¶308, ¶¶311-13 (Oct.8 2009);
Gustav v. Republic of Ghana, ICSID Case No. ARB/07/24, Award, ¶297(Jun.18, 2010).
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上述案例對分析的結果,正如第 4 章中所說明的,再次確認在現行國際投資條約的 實踐下,仍然允許國家保有國際習慣法上的規制空間,近期的仲裁實踐也沒有變更這一 點。
因此關鍵回到國家規制權限跟間接收之間的界線,如同Azurix v. Argentina案以及 LG&E v. Argentina案仲裁庭的見解,前者表示:「本庭認為,本案關鍵並非在於政府措施 是否出於正當的公共目的,而是出於正當公共目的的措施,是否構成國家的補償義務。
在達成國家公共政策之功能此一範圍內,政府可以採行任何影響投資經濟價值的措施,
而且不必加以補償…」10,而在後者中仲裁庭則說明,「國家一般而言,有權採取各種 不同的措施,促進社會或是公共福利。在這類情況下,該等措施不須加以補償,除非國 家的措施在手段跟目的間,顯失均衡。」11,「判斷國家措施是否構成……徵收,仲裁 庭必須在國家措施造成投資人的影響,以及國家採取不同政策的權利間,取得平衡……」
重點仍在如何區分間接徵收與合理的規制措施。
6.5 國際投資仲裁中用於區分合理規制措施與徵收的標 準
在國際投資仲裁中,本文研究的 41 個案例參考了採取了許多不同的要素進行判斷,
這些要素包括:1.國家措施對投資人之投資造成的損害(effect)、2.國家主觀上是否出於 取得財產的意圖、是否取得財產 3.國家措施是否出於公共目的(public purpose)、4.國家 措施是否依循正當程序(due process)、5.國家措施是否具有歧視性(discrimination)、6.投
10 Azurix(I) v. Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/01/12,Award, ¶309(July14, 2006).[hereinafter “Azurix I”]
(“For the Tribunal, the issue is not so much whether the measure concerned is legitimate and serves a public purpose, but whether it is a measure that, being legitimate and serving a public purpose, should give rise to a compensation claim. In the exercise of their public policy function, governments take all sorts of measures that may affect the economic value of investments without such measures giving rise to a need to compensate.”)
11 LG&E. v. Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/02/1, Decision on Liability, ¶195 (Oct.3, 2006).
(“With respect to the power of the State to adopt its policies, it can generally be said that the State has the right to adopt measures having a social or general welfare purpose. In such a case, the measure must be accepted without any imposition of liability, except in cases where the State’s action is obviously disproportionate to the need being addressed.” )