地理大發現時代至資訊時代：全球化的各種面向

第壹章 緒論

一、全球化：並未創新的古老概念

1.1.1 地理大發現時代至資訊時代：全球化的各種面向

全球化（globalization）並不是個陌生的概念，然而，全球化究竟是什麼卻是個難以 精確定義的概念。全球化的整體樣貌，與其細部的現象難以以寥寥數字呈現，本文嘗試 由定義全球化的方式切入，提供一概括簡史。首先，全球化的第一層定義可能是指全球 眾多國家彼此來往的情況，許多人跨越了本身所處的國境，與身在他國、素昧平生，或 許人種與國籍皆不相同的人群接觸的情形。但這樣的情況自人類有交通工具以來，就已 經開始，最為和平與頻繁發生的情形是人們透過貿易彼此往來。然而在歐洲探險家的地 理大發現之前，這種往來相較之下較為零星，而絲路可能是地理大發現之前距離最長的 商道。因而影響力也侷限於某些區域，推移的腳步較為緩慢。

如果我們選擇第二種定義，則全球化的意義為全球資本、勞力、貨物、商品，以及 人口的大量流動。¹十七世紀時，東方的瓷器及織錦大量流入西歐，而西歐人將美洲的 煙草與白銀、南方的香料，以及罌粟花製品運往東方。這是海權時代的全球化，是如格 勞秀斯等國際法學者初出茅廬嶄露頭角時代。²這種大量的流動始自於頻繁的貿易，但 伴隨的是文化的衝擊，甚或為一時頻繁的武裝衝突，可能造成的是法制上的改變。海權 時代的地理大發現對當時亞、歐洲，以及「初為歐洲人所發現」的新大陸而言，造成巨 大的影響，為當地人們觀看世界的方式奠下了一定的基礎。

這種大量的流動受到自由貿易的刺激而全力衝刺，一直至數十年前，國際金融、跨 國公司成長得仍十分快速，資本流動地更為迅捷。這種資本流動稱為國外直接投資

（Foreign Direct Investment, FDI） ³，在 2011 年開發中國家⁴吸收了近半數全球國外直接

1 See e.g. Paul S. Berman, Global Legal Pluralism, 80 S.CAL.L.REV. 1155, note 50 (2007).

2 See generally TIMOTHY BROOK,VERMEER'S HAT:THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY AND THE DAWN OF THE

GLOBAL WORLD (Bloomsbury 2008). The eminent Sinologist Timothy Brook provides a very fascinating version of the global trade activities during 17th century, which combines Chinese exporting goods and reaction in Netherlands together to illustrate a big picture of the Age of Expedition.

3 Other translation may be: 外國直接投資、境外直接投資、外人直接投資、對外直接投資、海外直接投資。

4 The term “developing countries” may refer to states having an inadequate access and quality of governmental services, social services, education programs, life expectancy, and standard of living. There is also an unequal

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投資流入量，創下了國外直接投資量的紀錄，其中大部分是北方向南方國家所為之投 資。⁵通常，對於經濟上較為弱勢的國家而言，他們是國外直接投資的接受者，如迅速 崛起的亞洲開發中國家。

表一：開發中國家貿易成長率表（1991-2003）

開發中國家貿易成長率（1991-2003）

國家或區域 1991-1995 1996-2000 2001-2003 出口成長率

世界 8.7 4.8 5.8

開發中國家 12.2 7.7 7.4 低度開發國家（LCD） 3.8 10.1 8.4 非洲低度開發國家 0.1 7.3 10.2 低收入國家 8.7 9.6 8.1 非洲低收入國家 2.8 12.6 4.2 進口成長率

世界 8.1 5.2 6.0

開發中國家 13.3 5.3 8.1 低度開發國家（LCD） 5.8 3.3 12.0 非洲低度開發國家 3.1 1.9 13.3 低收入國家 9.2 4.4 12.8 非洲低收入國家 5.2 0.9 16.1 來源：WORD BANK AND IMF,GLOBAL MONITORING REPORT, (Washington D.C.: 2005).

distribution of income in developing countries, and their factors of production are not fully utilized. These countries whose economies are characterized by cheap, unskilled labour and a scarcity of investment capital generally have low levels of technology and little in the way of an industrial base.

The World Bank’s main criterion for classification is gross national income (GNI) per capita. Based on its GNI per capita, every economy is classified as low income, middle income (subdivided into lower middle and upper middle), or high income. Developing country usually has per capita incomes are below 5000 USD and often less than 1500 USD. Around 70% of the world’s population live in the developing countries.

Since no single definition of the term developing country is recognized internationally, the WTO allows its members to announce for themselves whether they are “developed” or “developing” countries. However, other members can challenge the decision of a member to make use of provisions available to developing countries.

There are still nations with a relatively high level of material well-being are categorized under the term “newly industrialized countries, NICs.” The most typical instances would be South Korea and Taiwan.

5 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), World Investment Report 2011 (July 26, 2011 ), available at http://unctad.org/en/docs/wir2011_embargoed_en.pdf (last visited June 31, 2011).

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為便利資本市場中的資金流動，國外股本證券投資（foreign portfolio equity

investment, FPEI）亦大幅飆升，各種證券組合基金使得資本大量流向外國。東歐出身的 索羅斯（George Soros）主導的量子基金（Quantum Fund），是引起 1997 年前後捲起亞 洲金融風暴，讓東南亞民眾飽受經濟破產後的煎熬的推手之一，就是這種大量流動狀況 合與相互依賴（interdependence）。⁶因 1970 年代的經濟衰頹（詳下段所述）使得經濟大 國的利潤滑落，在 1980 至 1990 的十年間，美國的淨利潤率（net profit rate）從 22％跌 哈德遜灣公司（the Hudson's Bay Company）。20 世紀後在交通與信息傳播都特別快速的 狀況下，跨國企業（multinational corporation, MNC）¹¹提供其他國家人民工作機會，然

6 See KENICHI OHMAE,THE END OF THE NATION STATE:THE RISE OF REGIONAL ECONOMIES (New York: Simon and Schuster Inc. 1995).

7 KEITH FAULKS,POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY:ACRITICAL INTRODUCTION 53 (NYU Press 2000) .

8 Keith E. Maskus, The Role of Intellectual Property Rights in Encouraging Foreign Direct Investment and Technology Transfer, 9DUKE J.COMP.&INT’L L.109, 110 (1998).

9 Paul S. Berman, From International Law to Law and Globalization, 43COLUM.J.TRANSNAT'L L.485,553 (2005). Professor Berman mentions this point of view in the article for an introductory perspective to revalue the phenomena in the process of globalization. However, he concludes:

“This version of culture as a static homogeneous system, resist to change, differs dramatically from models of culture developed in anthropological literature over the last two decades.”

10 The subject both refers to the English East India Company and the Dutch East India Company (Dutch:

Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, VOC).

11 Other terminology with the same meaning may be multinational enterprise, MNE, or transnational cooperation, TNC.

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12 Mark Ritchie, Globalization vs. Globalism, International Forum on Globalization, available at

http://actrav.itcilo.org/actrav-english/telearn/global/ilo/globe/kirsh.htm. (last visited Dec. 31, 2011) The original text is as follows:

“I will define globalization as the process of corporations moving their money, factories and products around the planet at ever more rapid rates of speed in search of cheaper labor and raw materials and governments willing to ignore or abandon consumer, labor and environmental protection laws. As an ideology, it is largely unfettered by ethical or moral considerations.”

13 For a contrast perspective of the MNCs’ effect and future, Cf. ANTHONY GIDDENS,THE THIRD WAY AND ITS CRITICS (John Wiley & Sons 2000).

14 Quotes from famous critic and author David Korten, See WAYNE ELLWOOD,THE NO-NONSENSE GUIDE TO GLOBALIZATION 67-68, (Verso, 2001) (2001). The excerpted texts are provided without citations. The quoted text is as follows:

“And that does two things: it accelerates the rate of the breakdown of the planet’s ability to regenerate its natural systems. And it intensifies the competition between rich and poor for the resources that remain. I now believe that what Gross National Product (GNP) measures is the rate at which the economically powerful are expropriating the resources of the economically weak in order to convert them into products that quickly become the garbage of the rich. …..As corporations replace workers with technology they gain even more clout. ……This is what global competition is really about – communities and workers compete against each other to absorb even more of the production’s costs of the world’s powerful and profitable companies.”

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是範圍擴大為全球。當新興市場一個接著一個開放時，全球資本與產品迅速地流動，新 興市場彼此相互競爭，如同全球化理論名家 Anthony Giddens 所談論的一般，這樣的競 爭最後切實地影響到地球上的每一個個人。¹⁵而也就像是 Giddens 所主張的一般，我們 必須將視角放得更廣，過往對於資本與市場（或許可稱為右派）、勞工與階級（或許可 稱為左派）的論述尚不足以使我們得到解決這些問題的方案。¹⁶

表二：全球化現象之各種現象概觀表

全球化現象之概觀 特 色

接觸 個人跨越了本身所處的國境，與人種與國籍皆不相同的人群接 觸，透過貿易彼此往來。

流動 全球資本、勞力、貨物、商品，以及人口的大量流動，晚近國 際金融、跨國公司、資本流動成長得仍十分快速。

整合 全球市場的界線逐漸消失，跨國企業必須前往本國以外的地區 尋找市場方能生存，經濟體的榮衰彼此影響甚大。

壓迫 跨國企業在全球尋找更廉價的勞動力、原物料，提供其他國家 工作機會，然而願意忽視自身消費者權益、勞工及環境保護法 規的國家與政府將助其一臂之力。

競爭 市場範圍擴大為全球，新興市場一個接著一個開放，國家或區 域成為彼此競爭的經濟體。

來源：作者整理。