2.1 國際智慧財產權體系之建立
2.1.2 智慧財產權與貿易:兩情相悅的結合?
2.1.2.1 歷史發展層面:大型跨國企業的遊說進程
貿易與智慧財產權「有關」的原因實為已開發國家就國際貿易獲利方式的巨大改 變,獲利最大的產業逐漸成為各種依賴內容或科技的產品製造商。1980 年代數個大型跨 國企業開始思考將貿易與智慧財產權聯結,他們認識到開發中國家在 WIPO 等國際組織 已經陸續發聲,當時的輝瑞(Pfizer)大藥廠執行長 Edmund Pratt 是帶頭倡議者,他向 美國聯邦貿易委員會(Federal Trade Commission, FTC)等美國機關提出各項建言,認為 必須將貿易與智慧財產權相聯結看待並加強保障。數個輝瑞高階主管亦步亦趨跟進,在 各種商業聯盟內積極活動。輝瑞大藥廠利用美國貿易談判諮詢委員會(the Advisory Committee on Trade Negotiations, ACTN)的政策形成機制,將其主張散佈至USTR 等美 國政府機關中,Pratt 並於關鍵的六年中銜任 ACTN 之主席。受到輝瑞藥廠的言論影響,
杜邦公司(Du Pont Corporation)與 IBM 的董事長 John Opel 也開始活動。這樣的歷程 中,美國前貿易代表尤特(Clayton Yeutter)卻曾經向 Pratt 與 Opel 兩位表示過,他尚且 不認為可以支持將貿易與智慧財產權結合這種想法。19
由輝瑞、IBM、杜邦、通用汽車等公司計 12 位執行長為首的智慧財產權委員會
(Intellectual Property Committee, IPC)於 1986 年成立,而成為遊說進程的最大推手。20 昇陽電腦(Sun)與網景(Netscape)等科技資訊產業公司亦開始向柯林頓政府、國會、
在日內瓦的代表,及由 WIPO 組織的地區會議等遊說。21智慧財產權結合了不同的公司 和組織之間的共同利益,除了美國的藥品製造商協會(PMA)曾不輟遊說國會外,大型 跨國公司亦形成智慧財產權委員會(IPC)等跨產業組織,成員包括默克藥廠、嬌生公 司、IBM、惠普、通用汽車公司、通用電氣公司、杜邦公司、孟山都化學、華納公司等 等。所有這些團體和跨國公司的支持者將智慧財產權的保護推往最前線。22
美國政府也藉此一段歷程認識到,利用已有一定制裁機制的 GATT 體系作為最有力 的全球談判論壇(forum),並且藉由世界各國加入貿易協定中,將是對美國最為有利的 策略。23跨國企業的遊說代表團成功地說服日本和歐盟,使他們成為烏拉圭回合談判中
19 See Peter Drahos, Expanding Intellectual Property’s Empire: The Role of FTAs, GRAIN, Nov. 2003, available at http://www.grain.org/rights_files/drahos-fta-2003-en.pdf (last visited 2012/05/30).
20 See SELL, THE GLOBALIZATION OF IP, at 1-2.
21 Id., at 27.
22 Edmund J. Pratt, Intellectual Property, at
http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/about_public/mn_about_intellectualpropfrm.jsp. Edmund Pratt, Chairman Emeritus of Pfizer, also stated that, “[t]he committee helped convince U.S. officials that we should take a tough stance on intellectual property issues, and that led to trade-related intellectual property rights being included on the GATT agenda[.]” Id.
23 See Robert W. Kastenmeier & David Beier, International Trade and Intellectual Property: Promise, Risks,
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智慧財產權新標準制定的支持者。24日本由企業雇主組成的經濟團體聯合會(経団連,
KEIDANREN),及歐洲工商聯合會(Union of Industrial and Employers' Confederations of Europe, UNICE)也在 GATT 架構下提出反仿冒法(Anti-Counterfeiting Code)的議程。
他們與美國的智慧財產權委員會組成了所謂的「三巨頭」(Trilateral Group)25,展現了 烏拉圭回合談判中經濟強勢者側的龐大勢力。 技研發(research and development, R&D)投資能夠回收,而不致在開發中國家中受在地 廠商的「搭便車」(free riding)行為28侵蝕殆盡,因此許多文獻將「強的智慧財產權保 護體系」(strong IPR regime)和外國直接投資(FDI)的成長相聯結,29認為「弱的智慧 財產權保護體系」使得跨國企業不願投資,因而增加智慧財產權的「力量」(strength)
將有助於增加 FDI,而 FDI 的增加有助於增進開發中國家經濟成長。2001 年 WTO 發表
and Reality, 22 VAND J.TRANSNATL L. 285, 293-300 (1989).
24 Drahos, Expanding IP's Empire, at 5.
25 Dirk De Bièvre & Lars Thomann, Forum Shopping in the Global Intellectual Property Rights Regime 25 (Arbeitspapiere - Mannheimer Zentrum für Europäische Sozialforschung Working papers No.132 2010) available at http:// www.mzes.uni-mannheim.de/publications/wp/wp-132.pdf.
26 Id., at 33.
27 See SELL, THE GLOBALIZATION OF IP, 49.
28 「搭便車」(free riding)行為意指利用他人努力或投資,不勞而獲以取得利益。然而科技後進國對於科
技先進國的技術利用,是否為搭便車行為,可能有討論餘地。See Mark A. Lemley, Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding, 83 TEX.L.REV. 1031 (2004); Jerome H. Reichman, From Free Riders to Fair Followers: Global Competition Under the TRIPS Agreement, 29 N.Y.U.J.INT'L L.&POL. 11 (1997).
29 學說上稱為「正向的 FDI-IPR 關係」(FDI-IPR positive relations)。
While another school of research articulates that the “strength” of this kind of relationship depends on the type of industry receiving the investment. Generally speaking, high-tech, pharmaceutical and chemical industries heavily rely on the protection of IPRs. See Beata Smarzynska Javorcik, The Composition of Foreign Direct Investment and Protection of Intellectual Property Rights: Evidence from Transition Economies, 48 EURO.ECON. REV. 39 (2004).
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的杜哈宣言(the Doha Declaration)30涉及投資部分的第二十段更直接指示:「基於承認 多邊架構對於長期性跨國投資(特別是外人直接投資)而言可以提供透明、穩定及可預
30 World Trade Organization, Ministerial Declaration of 14 November 2001, WT/MIN(01)/DEC/1, 41 I.L.M.
746 (2002) available at http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min01_e/mindecl_e.htm.
31 Id., paragraph 20 reads:
“Recognizing the case for a multilateral framework to secure transparent, stable and predictable conditions for long-term cross-border investment, particularly foreign direct investment, that will contribute to the expansion of trade, and the need for enhanced technical assistance and capacity-building in this area as referred to in
paragraph 21, we agree that negotiations will take place after the Fifth Session of the Ministerial Conference on the basis of a decision to be taken, by explicit consensus, at that session on modalities of negotiations.”
32 Elhanan Helpman, Innovation, Imitation, and Intellectual Property Rights, 61 ECONOMETRICA 1247, 1248 (1993).
33 See Bernard Hoekman, Focal Points and Multilateral Negotiations on the Contestability of Market (Paper Written for a Conference, “Quiet Pioneerng: Robert M. Stern and his International Economic Legacy,” Held in University of Michigan, 1995).
34 See Keith Maskus, Intellectual Property Rights And Foreign Direct Investment, (Centre for International Economic Studies Working Paper No. 22, 2000) available at http://192.43.228.130/cies/papers/0022.pdf; Keith E.
Maskus, The Role of Intellectual Property Rights in Encouraging Foreign Direct Investment and Technology Transfer, 9 Duke J. Comp. & Int'l L. 109, 118 (1998-1999).
35 See Jeong-Yeon Lee and Edwin Mansfield, Intellectual Property Protection and U.S. Foreign Direct Investment, 78 REVIEW OF ECONOMICS AND STATISTIC 181 (1996). The study used survey and data from 14 developing countries to support a strong FDI-IPR relationship.
36 See Id., at 124.(indicating that many of the economic research articles may be methodologically problematic because of their shortage to capture the incentive afford by a system of laws, regulations, and enforcement in a virtually meaningful index.) See Carlos A. Primo Braga and Carsten Fink, The Relationship Between Intellectual Property Rights and Foreign Direct Investment, 9 DUKE.J.COMP.&INT'L L. 163, 177-183 (1998). See also Edmund W. Kitch, Elementary and Persistent Errors in the Economic Analysis of Intellectual Property, 53 VAND. L.REV. 1727 (2000).
37 See Id. , at 121.
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能去增進開發中國家當地的工業競爭,38這就是智慧財產權的全球化最大的問題之一。
智慧財產權確實在貿易上保護了跨國企業的銷售,增進跨國企業進出口和投資的意 願,然而根據 Maskus 的洞見,智慧財產權不當然增進一國的工業化,並且,最值得深 思的是「強的智慧財產權保護體系」帶來的外溢效果可能不是增進競爭,這樣的外溢效 果對開發中國家當地的企業家精神的鼓勵性也著實啟人疑竇。有論述觀點則是從併購切 入,發現 FDI 有大部分是用以購買國營事業、當地公司股權,或融通併購案。為了要將 利潤匯回總公司,FDI 的增加也可能使外匯淨流出增加,尤其是在跨國企業並未在本地 生產時,將會對當地的生產商造成排擠。39
「強的智慧財產權保護體系」可能並不當然能夠建立開發中國家的國民工業,但必 然會使得國民的技術達成某種程度的增進,並且使開發中國家國民接受低工資成為跨國 企業的僱員。然而,FDI 的增加不必然造成「適度的」科技移轉(technology transfer),
以電子產品為例,今日跨國資本可能選擇在 A 國生產鍵盤,B 國生產主機外殼,並在 C 國組裝出口,然而關鍵零組件如積體電路等可能是在跨國資本的原生國研發,以上所言 跨國企業對 A、B 國之鍵盤、主機外殼等低成本、低科技密度的技術移轉,可能對於 A、
B 國當地的整體工業化意義甚微。
但引用各種實證數據的經濟學研究文獻並不單單顯示智慧財產權保護與 FDI 的增 加有關,也有一部分研究指出智慧財產權保護與 FDI 的增加間其關係是「曖昧的」
(ambiguous)。40而 FDI 的增加其原因千百不等,41一地的勞工薪資水平及市場大小甚 至可能凌駕智慧財產權保護體系的考量,使得企業增加於該地之投資。42如前所述,引 用實證資料的經濟學研究文獻喜好的用語是「強的智慧財產權保護體系」,並且強調所 謂智慧財產權的「力量」,但這樣的用語可能是出自於經濟學研究文獻對法律體系過於 概括的理解,以致於無法真正以「指數」(index)來顯示各種不同的法律機制所提供作
38 See Id.
39 WAYNE ELLWOOD,THE NO-NONSENSE GUIDE TO GLOBALIZATION 61-62, (Verso, 2001) (2001).
40 Keith E. Maskus, How trade-related are intellectual property rights?, 39 J.INT’L ECON. 227 (1995).
41 Economic analysis of IPR often uses a generally accepted framework called
"ownership-location-internalization" theory. The theory deals with incentives for MNEs to decide to invest overseas instead of licensing. The foreign country must offer MNEs possessing ownership advantages with
"location advantages" (e.g. low trade, labor or energy costs, low tax burden, low input prices) that make local production more profitable than exporting. See generally JOHN H.DUNNING,THE INTERNATIONAL ALLOCATION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan 1977).
42 See Peter K. Yu, Intellectual Property, Economic Development, and the China Puzzle, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY,TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT:STRATEGIES TO OPTIMIZE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN A TRIPSPLUS ERA 173-220, (Oxford University Press, D. J. Gervais eds. 2007), available at
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=978301.
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用不同的保護。43以專利法為例,對於申請專利範圍(claim)的建構在在影響了專利的 強度,但申請專利範圍的建構方式不同卻極難以數字表達。經濟學文獻研究杜哈回合談 判時以保護年限長度、保護廣度(如對植物種苗或活體研究是否提供保護)、參加國際 公約數目等來「計算」所謂智慧財產權的「力量」44,可能是對於智慧財產權法律實質 內容的一種誤解,而無法呈現保護的全貌及其後續所產生的影響。Watkins 及 Taylor 在 一項 2010 的研究中就發現,自 2000 年後全球化的腳步加劇,但運用各種指數做最小平 方法的迴歸分析(ordinary least squares regression)時,發現於新興經濟體的智慧財產權 規範強度其與自美國流入的 FDI 之關係上,在統計上其影響力並不顯著。45
表六:實證學術研究中 FDI 與智慧財產權保護強度關係解釋表 FDI 與智慧財產權保護「強度」關係 可能之解釋
正向關係 智慧財產權規範強度愈強,流入經濟體之 FDI 愈多。
產業特定關係
在某些特定產業,例如製藥、化學工業,當政府提升 智慧財產權規範保護強度,流入經濟體之 FDI 則愈 多。
曖昧關係
在某些情況下智慧財產權規範強度愈強,流入經濟體 之 FDI 愈多,但在某些情況下智慧財產權規範強度與 FDI 之流入多寡無關。
無顯著關係 智慧財產權規範強度並不會特別影響流通經濟體之 FDI 其增減。
來源:作者整理
43 See James Mitchell Watkins and Mark Zachary Taylor, Intellectual Property Protection and US Foreign Direct Investment in Emerging Economies, 15 J.INTELL.PROP.RTS. 415, 416-417 (2010). See also Carlos A.
Primo Braga and Carsten Fink, The Relationship Between Intellectual Property Rights and Foreign Direct Investment, 9 DUKE.J.COMP.&INT'L L. 163, 182-184 (1998).
44 There are two major competing indexes to measure “the strength of IPR regime” within a country. The Ginarte-Park index incorporates five considerations: the extent of coverage of patent protection, membership in international treaties, provisions for loss, and enforcement mechanisms. The other index is the WEF index, which uses data from the Executive Opinion Survey. The survey asked respondents to rate the degree of their countries’ IPR protection. Both of them are not perfect enough in explaining the strength of IPR regime. In my
44 There are two major competing indexes to measure “the strength of IPR regime” within a country. The Ginarte-Park index incorporates five considerations: the extent of coverage of patent protection, membership in international treaties, provisions for loss, and enforcement mechanisms. The other index is the WEF index, which uses data from the Executive Opinion Survey. The survey asked respondents to rate the degree of their countries’ IPR protection. Both of them are not perfect enough in explaining the strength of IPR regime. In my